Low-dimensional semiconductor structures : fundamentals and device applications

Title:

Publication Information:

Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press, 2001

ISBN:

9780521591034

Subject Term:

Low-dimensional semiconductors

Crystal growth

Quantum Hall effect

Added Author:

Barnham, Keith, 1943-

Vvedensky, Dimitri D. (Dimitri Dimitrievich)

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Library	Item Barcode	Call Number	Material Type	Item Category 1	Status
Searching... PSZ JB	30000010126574	QC611.6.S9 L68 2001	Open Access Book	Book	Searching... Unknown

Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures provides a seamless, atoms-to-devices introduction to the latest quantum heterostructures. It covers their fabrication, their electronic, optical and transport properties, their role in exploring physical phenomena, and their utilization in devices. The authors begin with a detailed description of the epitaxial growth of semiconductors. They then deal with the physical behaviour of electrons and phonons in low-dimensional structures. A discussion of localization effects and quantum transport phenomena is followed by coverage of the optical properties of quantum wells. They then go on to discuss non-linear optics in quantum heterostructures. The final chapters deal with semiconductor lasers, mesoscopic devices, and high-speed heterostructure devices. The book contains many exercises and comprehensive references. It is suitable as a textbook for graduate-level courses in electrical engineering and applied physics. It will also be of interest to engineers involved in the development of semiconductor devices.

Author Notes

Keith Barnham received his PhD from the University of Birmingham. He is a Professor of Physics at Imperial College and the author of over 150 technical papers.
Dimitri Vvedensky received his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a Professor of Theoretical Condensed Matter Physics at Imperial College and the author of over 200 technical papers. He is a former Chairman of the Institute of Physics Thin Films and Surfaces Group and a Director of the Society for Engineering Science.

D. D. VvedenskyE. A. JohnsonE. A. JohnsonM. P. BlencoweA. MacKinnonJ. NelsonC. C. PhillipsA. Khan and P. N. Stavrinou and G. ParryT. J. ThorntonJ. J. Harris

List of contributors	p. xii
Preface	p. xiii
1 Epitaxial Growth of Semiconductors	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Epitaxial Growth Techniques	p. 3
1.2.1 Molecular-beam Epitaxy	p. 3
1.2.2 Vapour-phase Epitaxy	p. 6
1.2.3 Molecular-beam Epitaxy with Heteroatomic Precursors	p. 7
1.3 Epitaxial Growth Modes	p. 8
1.4 In Situ Observation of Growth Kinetics and Surface Morphology	p. 10
1.4.1 Reflection High-energy Electron Diffraction	p. 11
1.4.2 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy	p. 12
1.4.3 Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 13
1.5 Atomistic Processes during Homoepitaxy	p. 16
1.5.1 Growth Kinetics on Vicinal GaAs(001)	p. 16
1.5.2 Anisotropic Growth and Surface Reconstructions	p. 19
1.5.2.1 Vicinal GaAs(001)	p. 19
1.5.2.2 Vicinal Si(001)	p. 21
1.6 Models of Homoepitaxial Kinetics	p. 23
1.6.1 The Theory of Burton, Cabrera and Frank	p. 23
1.6.2 Homogeneous Rate Equations	p. 24
1.6.3 Multilayer Growth on Singular Surfaces	p. 27
1.7 Mechanisms of Heteroepitaxial Growth	p. 29
1.7.1 Kinetics and Equilibrium with Misfit Strain	p. 29
1.7.2 The Frenkel-Kontorova Model	p. 30
1.8 Direct Growth of Quantum Heterostructures	p. 32
1.8.1 Quantum Wells and Quantum-well Superlattices	p. 33
1.8.2 Quantum Wire Superlattices	p. 34
1.8.3 Self-organized Quantum Dots	p. 37
1.8.3.1 Stranski-Krastanov Growth of InAs on GaAs(001)	p. 38
1.8.3.2 Controlled Positioning of Quantum Dots	p. 40
1.8.3.3 Ge 'Hut' Clusters on Si(001)	p. 40
1.9 Growth on Patterned Substrates	p. 42
1.9.1 Selective Area Growth	p. 43
1.9.2 Quantum Wires on 'V-Grooved' Surfaces	p. 43
1.9.3 Stranski--Krastanov Growth on Patterned Substrates	p. 44
1.10 Future Directions	p. 46
Exercises	p. 47
References	p. 51
2 Electrons in Quantum Semiconductor Structures: An Introduction	p. 56
2.1 Introduction	p. 56
2.2 Ideal Low-dimensional Systems	p. 57
2.2.1 Free Electrons in Three Dimensions: A Review	p. 57
2.2.2 Ideal Two-dimensional Electron Gas	p. 58
2.2.3 Ideal Zero- and One-dimensional Electron Gases	p. 60
2.2.4 Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots	p. 61
2.3 Real Electron Gases: Single Particle Models	p. 61
2.3.1 Ideal Square Well	p. 62
2.3.2 Some Generalizations	p. 65
2.3.2.1 Holes in Quantum Wells	p. 65
2.3.2.2 Non-parabolicity	p. 65
2.3.3 Finite Quantum Wells and Real Systems	p. 66
2.3.4 Interface Effects	p. 70
2.3.4.1 Effective Mass for Parallel Transport	p. 70
2.3.4.2 Effective-mass Correction to Conduction-band Discontinuities	p. 71
2.3.5 Quantum Wires	p. 73
2.3.5.1 Quantum Point Contacts	p. 74
2.3.6 Quantum Dots	p. 75
Exercises	p. 76
References	p. 77
3 Electrons in Quantum Semiconductors Structures: More Advanced Systems and Methods	p. 79
3.1 Introduction	p. 79
3.2 Many-body Effects	p. 79
3.2.1 The Hartree Approximation	p. 79
3.2.2 Beyond the Hartree Approximation	p. 81
3.2.3 The 2DEG at a Heterojunction Interface	p. 82
3.2.4 The Ideal Heterojunction	p. 85
3.3 Some Calculational Methods	p. 86
3.3.1 The WKB Approximation	p. 87
3.3.2 The 2DEG in Doping Wells	p. 90
3.3.2.1 The Delta Well (Spike Doping)	p. 93
3.3.3 The Thomas--Fermi Approximation for Two-dimensional Systems	p. 95
3.3.3.1 The Thomas--Fermi Approximation for Heterojunctions and Delta Wells	p. 96
3.4 Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots	p. 97
3.4.1 Quantum Point Contacts and Quantized Conductance Steps	p. 97
3.4.2 A Closer Look at Quantum Dots	p. 101
3.4.3 The Coulomb Blockade and Single-electron Transistors	p. 104
3.5 Superlattices	p. 106
3.5.1 Superlattices and Multi-quantum-wells	p. 107
3.5.2 Miniband Properties: The WKB Approximation	p. 109
3.5.3 Doping Superlattices	p. 112
3.5.3.1 Delta-Doped n-i-p-is	p. 114
3.5.3.2 Compositional and Doping Superlattices	p. 115
3.5.4 Other Types of Superlattices	p. 116
Exercises	p. 118
References	p. 122
4 Phonons in Low-dimensional Semiconductor Structures	p. 123
4.1 Introduction	p. 123
4.2 Phonons in Heterostructures	p. 124
4.2.1 Superlattices	p. 125
4.2.2 Mesoscopic Phonon Phenomena	p. 131
4.3 Electron--Phonon Interactions in Heterostructures	p. 135
4.4 Conclusion	p. 144
Exercises	p. 145
References	p. 147
5 Localization and Quantum Transport	p. 149
5.1 Introduction	p. 149
5.2 Localization	p. 151
5.2.1 Percolation	p. 151
5.2.2 The Anderson Transition and the Mobility Edge	p. 151
5.2.3 Variable Range Hopping	p. 154
5.2.4 Minimum Metallic Conductivity	p. 154
5.3 Scaling Theory and Quantum Interference	p. 155
5.3.1 The Gang of Four	p. 155
5.3.2 Experiments on Weak Localization	p. 157
5.3.3 Quantum Interference	p. 158
5.3.4 Negative Magnetoresistance	p. 159
5.3.5 Single Rings and Non-local Transport	p. 160
5.3.6 Spin--orbit Coupling, Magnetic Impurities, etc.	p. 163
5.3.7 Universal Conductance Fluctuations	p. 163
5.3.8 Ballistic Transport	p. 163
5.4 Interaction Effects	p. 164
5.4.1 The In T Correction	p. 164
5.4.2 Wigner Crystallization	p. 164
5.5 The Quantum Hall Effect	p. 165
5.5.1 General	p. 165
5.5.2 The Quantum Hall Effect Measurements	p. 168
5.5.3 The Semiclassical Theory	p. 170
5.5.4 The Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	p. 172
Exercises	p. 175
References	p. 178
6 Electronic States and Optical Properties of Quantum Wells	p. 180
6.1 Introduction	p. 180
6.2 The Envelope Function Scheme	p. 183
6.3 The Parabolic Band Model	p. 187
6.4 Effects of Band Mixing	p. 192
6.4.1 Light Particle Band Non-parabolicity	p. 192
6.4.2 Valence Band Non-parabolicity	p. 193
6.5 Multiple Well Effects	p. 194
6.6 Effects of the Coulomb Interaction	p. 197
6.6.1 Excitons in Bulk Semiconductors	p. 197
6.6.2 Excitons in Quantum Wells	p. 198
6.7 Effects of Applied Bias	p. 201
6.8 Optical Absorption in a Quantum Well	p. 205
6.9 Optical Characterization	p. 209
6.9.1 Measurement of Absorption	p. 209
6.9.2 Features of Optical Spectra	p. 211
6.9.2.1 Band Non-parabolicity	p. 211
6.9.2.2 Valence Band Mixing	p. 212
6.9.2.3 Interwell Coupling	p. 214
6.9.2.4 Electric Field	p. 214
6.10 Quantum-well Solar Cells	p. 215
6.10.1 Photoconversion	p. 215
6.10.2 Basic Principles	p. 217
6.10.2.1 Photocurrent	p. 217
6.10.2.2 Recombination Current	p. 221
6.10.2.3 Carrier Escape	p. 221
6.11 Concluding Remarks	p. 222
Exercises	p. 222
References	p. 225
7 Non-Linear Optics in Low-dimensional Semiconductors	p. 227
7.1 Introduction	p. 227
7.2 Non-dissipative NLO Processes	p. 229
7.3 Dissipative NLO Effects	p. 231
7.4 Potential Applications of NLO	p. 232
7.4.1 Serial Channel Applications	p. 232
7.4.2 Multi-channel Applications: Optical Computing	p. 233
7.5 Excitonic Optical Saturation in MQWs	p. 234
7.5.1 Excitonic Absorption at Low Intensities	p. 234
7.5.2 Saturation of Excitonic Peaks at High Intensities	p. 237
7.6 The Quantum Confined Stark Effect	p. 239
7.7 Doping Superlattices ('n-i-p-i' Crystals)	p. 242
7.8 Hetero--n-i-p-i Structures	p. 246
7.8.1 Band Filling Effects in Hetero--n-i-p-is	p. 247
7.8.2 The QCSE in Hetero--n-i-p-is	p. 249
7.9 Concluding Remarks	p. 254
Exercises	p. 255
References	p. 257
8 Semiconductor Lasers	p. 260
8.1 Introduction	p. 260
8.2 Basic Laser Theory	p. 262
8.2.1 Laser Threshold	p. 265
8.2.2 Threshold Current Density	p. 267
8.2.3 Power Output	p. 270
8.3 Fundamental Gain Calculations	p. 272
8.3.1 Electronic Band Structure and Densities of States	p. 272
8.3.2 Carrier Density and Inversion	p. 274
8.3.3 Gain Expression	p. 276
8.3.4 Optical Gain in 2D and 3D Active Regions	p. 277
8.4 Strained Layers	p. 280
8.4.1 Optical Interband Matrix Element	p. 284
8.5 Some other Laser Geometries	p. 286
Exercises	p. 292
References	p. 294
9 Mesoscopic Devices	p. 296
9.1 Introduction	p. 296
9.2 Quantum Interference Transistors	p. 297
9.2.1 Quantum Interference and Negative Magnetoresistance	p. 297
9.2.2 The Aharanov--Bohm Effect	p. 303
9.2.3 Universal Conductance Fluctuations	p. 306
9.2.4 Quantum Interference Transistors	p. 309
9.2.4.1 The Gated Ring Interferometer	p. 310
9.2.4.2 The Stub Tuner	p. 311
9.2.4.3 Problems with Quantum Interference Transistors	p. 311
9.3 Ballistic Electron Devices	p. 314
9.3.1 Electron Transmission and the Landauer--Buttiker Formula	p. 315
9.3.2 Quantized Conductance in Ballistic Point Contacts	p. 316
9.3.3 Multi-terminal Devices	p. 318
9.3.3.1 The Negative Bend Resistance	p. 318
9.3.3.2 Quenching of the Hall Effect	p. 319
9.3.4 Possible Applications of Ballistic Electron Devices	p. 320
9.3.5 Boundary Scattering in Ballistic Structures	p. 323
9.4 Quantum Dot Resonant Tunnelling Devices	p. 325
9.4.1 Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Wells	p. 326
9.4.2 Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Dots	p. 328
9.4.3 Gated Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Dots	p. 329
9.5 Coulomb Blockade and Single-electron Transistors	p. 331
9.5.1 Coulomb Blockade in the Current-biassed Single Junction	p. 332
9.5.2 Coulomb Blockade in Double Junctions	p. 334
9.5.3 Necessary Conditions for Efficient Coulomb Blockade	p. 335
9.5.4 Single-electron Transistors	p. 335
9.5.5 Co-tunnelling and Multiple Tunnel Junctions	p. 339
9.5.6 Possible Applications of Single-electron Transistors	p. 340
9.6 The Future of Mesoscopic Devices	p. 342
Exercises	p. 343
References	p. 345
10 High-speed Heterostructure Devices	p. 348
10.1 Introduction	p. 348
10.2 Field-effect Transistors	p. 349
10.2.1 The Si MOSFET	p. 349
10.2.2 GaAs/AlGaAs High-electron-mobility Transistor	p. 355
10.2.3 InGaAs HEMTs	p. 358
10.2.4 Delta-doped FETs	p. 361
10.3 Vertical Transport Devices	p. 363
10.3.1 Unipolar Diodes	p. 364
10.3.2 Hot-electron Devices	p. 365
10.3.3 Resonant Tunnelling Structures	p. 367
10.3.4 Superlattice Devices	p. 370
10.3.5 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors	p. 372
10.4 Conclusions	p. 375
Exercises	p. 375
References	p. 377
Solutions to Selected Exercises	p. 379
Index	p. 387

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