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Summary
Summary
Success of a product is determined by the market. I am therefore very pleased that the ?rst two editions of this book have been sold out, and that the publisher has asked me to work on a third, revised and expanded edition. - viously,thereisstilldemandfor"MatterandMethodsatLowTemperatures", even almost 15 years after publication of the ?rst edition. Before working on this revision, I had written to more than 20 expert colleagues to ask for their recommendations for revisions. Besides details, the essence of their response was the following (1) Essentially, leave as it is; (2) AddmoreinformationonpropertiesofmaterialsatT> 1K;(3)Addinfor- tion on suppliers of low-temperature equipment. Besides following the latter tworecommendations,Ihave,ofcourse,takenintoaccountallrelevantnew- formation and new developments that have become available since the second edition was written more than 10 years ago, in 1995. I have found this inf- mation in particular in the journals "Journal of Low Temperature Physics", "Review of Scienti?c Instruments", and "Cryogenics", as well as in the P- ceedingsoftheInternationalConferencesonLowTemperaturePhysics,which took place in Prague (1996), Helsinki (1999), Hiroshima (2002), and Orlando, FL (2005), as well as of the International Symposium on Quantum Fluids and Solids, which took place in Ithaca, NY (1995), Paris (1997), Amherst, MA (1998), Minneapolis, MN (2000), Konstanz (2001), Albuquerque, NM (2003), and Trento (2004); the latter proceedings have also been published as issues of the Journal of Low Temperature Physics.
Author Notes
Professor of Physics at the Universities of Cologne (1975-1983), Bayreuth (1983-1996), Dresden (1997-2003); Director at the Forschungszentrum Jülich (1975-1983); Scientific Director of the Forschungszentrum Rossendorf (1996-2003); Editor of "Journal of Low Temperature Physics" from 1992 - 2005; President (Past president) of Leibniz Gemeinschaft 1998-2001 (2001-2005)
Table of Contents
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
2 Properties of Cryoliquids | p. 7 |
2.1 Liquid Air, Liquid Oxygen, Liquid Nitrogen | p. 7 |
2.2 Liquid Hydrogen | p. 8 |
2.3 Liquid Helium | p. 13 |
2.3.1 Some Properties of the Helium Isotopes | p. 13 |
2.3.2 Latent Heat of Evaporation and Vapour Pressure | p. 17 |
2.3.3 Specific Heat | p. 20 |
2.3.4 Transport Properties of Liquid 4 He: Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity | p. 23 |
2.3.5 Superfluid Film Flow | p. 25 |
2.3.6 Liquid 3 He and 3 He- 4 He Mixtures at Millikelvin Temperatures | p. 27 |
Problems | p. 32 |
3 Solid Matter at Low Temperatures | p. 33 |
3.1 Specific Heat | p. 34 |
3.1.1 Insulators | p. 34 |
3.1.2 Metals | p. 38 |
3.1.3 Superconducting Metals | p. 40 |
3.1.4 Non-Crystalline Solids | p. 42 |
3.1.5 Magnetic Specific Heat | p. 44 |
3.1.6 The Low-Temperature Specific Heat of Copper and Platinum | p. 47 |
3.1.7 Specific Heat of Some Selected Materials | p. 47 |
3.1.8 Calorimetry or How to Measure Heat Capacities | p. 50 |
3.2 Thermal Expansion | p. 58 |
3.2.1 Thermal Expansion of Solids | p. 58 |
3.2.2 Dilatometers or How to Measure Thermal Expansions | p. 61 |
3.3 Thermal Conductivity | p. 62 |
3.3.1 Lattice Conductivity: Phonons | p. 63 |
3.3.2 Electronic Thermal Conductivity | p. 67 |
3.3.3 Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures | p. 70 |
3.3.4 Superconducting Metals | p. 71 |
3.3.5 Relation Between Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: The Wiedemann-Franz Law | p. 72 |
3.3.6 Influence of Impurities on Conductivity | p. 74 |
3.3.7 Thermal Conductivities of Copper, Silver and Aluminum at Low Temperatures | p. 77 |
3.3.8 How to Measure Thermal Conductivities | p. 79 |
3.4 Magnetic Susceptibilities | p. 81 |
3.4.1 Magnetic Susceptibilities of Some Selected Materials | p. 81 |
3.4.2 How to Measure Susceptibilities and Magnetizations | p. 84 |
Problems | p. 92 |
4 Thermal Contact and Thermal Isolation | p. 95 |
4.1 Selection of the Material with the Appropriate Cryogenic Thermal Conductivity | p. 95 |
4.2 Heat Switches | p. 97 |
4.2.1 Gaseous and Mechanical Heat Switches | p. 97 |
4.2.2 Superconducting Heat Switches | p. 98 |
4.3 Thermal Boundary Resistance | p. 102 |
4.3.1 Boundary Resistance Between Metals | p. 102 |
4.3.2 Boundary Resistance Between Liquid Helium and Solids | p. 105 |
Problems | p. 113 |
5 Helium-4 Cryostats and Closed-Cycle Refrigerators | p. 115 |
5.1 Use of Liquid 4 He in Low-Temperature Equipment | p. 116 |
5.1.1 Cool-Down Period | p. 116 |
5.1.2 Running Phase of the Experiment | p. 117 |
5.2 Helium-4 Cryostats | p. 120 |
5.2.1 Double-Walled Glass Dewars | p. 121 |
5.2.2 Metal Dewars | p. 123 |
5.2.3 Cryostats for T > 5K | p. 124 |
5.2.4 Cryostats with Variable Temperature for 1.3 K ≤ T ≤ 4.2 K | p. 125 |
5.2.5 Auxiliary Equipment | p. 130 |
5.3 Closed-Cycle Refrigerators | p. 133 |
5.4 Temperature Control | p. 136 |
Problems | p. 137 |
6 Helium-3 Cryostats | p. 139 |
6.1 Helium-3 Cryostats with External Pumps | p. 140 |
6.2 Helium-3 Cryostats with Internal Adsorption Pumps | p. 142 |
Problems | p. 147 |
7 The 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator | p. 149 |
7.1 Properties of Liquid 3 He- 4 He Mixtures | p. 150 |
7.1.1 Phase Diagram and Solubility | p. 150 |
7.1.2 3 He- 4 He Mixtures as Fermi Liquids | p. 153 |
7.1.3 Finite Solubility of 3 He in 4 He | p. 154 |
7.1.4 Cooling Power of the Dilution Process | p. 157 |
7.1.5 Osmotic Pressure | p. 160 |
7.2 Realization of a 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator | p. 163 |
7.3 Properties of the Main Components of a 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator | p. 165 |
7.3.1 Mixing Chamber | p. 165 |
7.3.2 Still | p. 167 |
7.3.3 Heat Exchangers | p. 168 |
7.4 Examples of 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerators | p. 176 |
Problems | p. 188 |
8 Refrigeration by Solidification of Liquid 3 He: Pomeranchuck Cooling | p. 191 |
8.1 Phase and Entropy Diagrams of 3 He | p. 192 |
8.2 Entropies of Liquid and Solid "He | p. 193 |
8.3 Pomeranchuk Cooling | p. 195 |
Problems | p. 201 |
9 Refrigeration by Adiabatic Demagnetization of a Paramagnetic Salt | p. 203 |
9.1 The Principle of Magnetic Refrigeration | p. 204 |
9.2 Thermodynamics of Magnetic Refrigeration | p. 205 |
9.3 Non-Interacting Magnetic Dipoles in a Magnetic Field | p. 207 |
9.4 Paramagnetic Salts and Magnetic Refrigerators | p. 209 |
Problems | p. 212 |
10 Refrigeration by Adiabatic Nuclear Demagnetization | p. 215 |
10.1 Some Equations Relevant for Nuclear Refrigeration | p. 219 |
10.2 Differences in Nuclear and Electronic Demagnetization | p. 221 |
10.3 Interaction Between Conduction Electrons and Nuclei | p. 223 |
10.3.1 Electron-Phonon Coupling | p. 223 |
10.3.2 Nucleus-Electron Coupling | p. 223 |
10.4 Influence of an External Heat Load and the Optimum Final Magnetic Field | p. 228 |
10.5 Heat Leaks | p. 231 |
10.5.1 External Heat Leaks | p. 231 |
10.5.2 Eddy Current Heating | p. 234 |
10.5.3 Internal, Time-Dependent Heat Leaks | p. 235 |
10.5.4 Heating from Radioactivity and High-Energy Particles | p. 238 |
10.6 Nuclear Refrigerants | p. 238 |
10.7 Hyperfine Enhanced Nuclear Refrigeration | p. 241 |
10.8 Nuclear Demagnetization Refrigerators | p. 244 |
Problems | p. 257 |
11 Temperature Scales and Temperature Fixed Points | p. 259 |
11.1 Thermodynamic Temperature | p. 259 |
11.2 The International Temperature Scale ITS-90 | p. 261 |
11.3 The New Provisional Low-Temperature Scale PLTS-2000 | p. 264 |
11.4 Practical but not Officially Accepted Low-Temperature Fixed Points | p. 271 |
11.4.1 Fixed Points of EPT-76 | p. 271 |
11.4.2 The NBS Superconducting Fixed-Point Device | p. 271 |
11.4.3 The SRD 1000 Superconducting Fixed-Point Device | p. 274 |
11.4.4 The Superfluid Transition of Liquid 4 He | p. 275 |
Problems | p. 276 |
12 Low-Temperature Thermometry | p. 277 |
12.1 Gas Thermometry | p. 278 |
12.2 Helium Vapour Pressure Thermometry | p. 279 |
12.3 Helium Melting Pressure Thermometry | p. 282 |
12.4 Thermoelectricity | p. 283 |
12.5 Resistance Thermometry | p. 287 |
12.5.1 Metals | p. 287 |
12.5.2 Doped-Germanium and Carbon Resistors | p. 290 |
12.5.3 Oxide Compounds: RuO 2 and Cernox Thermometers | p. 300 |
12.5.4 Resistance Bridges | p. 305 |
12.6 Coulomb Blockade Thermometry | p. 308 |
12.7 Noise Thermometry | p. 312 |
12.8 Capacitance Thermometry | p. 317 |
12.9 Magnetic Thermometry with Electronic Paramagnets | p. 320 |
12.10 Magnetic Thermometry with Nuclear Paramagnets | p. 328 |
12.10.1 Non-Resonant, Integral Detection of Nuclear Magnetization | p. 329 |
12.10.2 Selective Excitation but Non-Resonant Detection of Nuclear Magnetization | p. 331 |
12.10.3 Resonant Excitation and Resonant Detection of Nuclear Magnetization | p. 333 |
12.11 Magnetic Thermometry via Anisotropy of Gamma Rays | p. 345 |
12.12 Summary | p. 350 |
Problems | p. 351 |
13 Miscellaneous Cryogenic Devices and Design Aids | p. 353 |
13.1 Cryogenic Pressure Transducers for Thermometry and Manometry | p. 353 |
13.1.1 Capacitive Pressure Transducers | p. 353 |
13.1.2 Inductive Pressure Transducers | p. 359 |
13.2 Cold Valves | p. 359 |
13.3 Coaxial Cables and Feedthroughs | p. 361 |
13.4 Small Magnets and Magnet Leads | p. 363 |
13.4.1 Small Superconducting Magnets and Magnet Leads | p. 363 |
13.4.2 Small Pulsed Normal-Conducting Magnets | p. 366 |
13.5 Shielding Against Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Fields Inside of Shields | p. 366 |
13.5.1 Normal-Conducting Shields | p. 367 |
13.5.2 Superconducting Shields | p. 368 |
13.5.3 Magnetic Fields Inside of Shields | p. 369 |
13.6 Sintered Metal Heat Exchangers | p. 370 |
13.7 Low-Temperature Motors and Rotators | p. 373 |
13.8 Optical Experiments at Low Temperatures | p. 374 |
13.9 Electronic Tunnel-Junction Refrigerators | p. 376 |
13.10 Torsional and Translational Oscillators | p. 379 |
13.10.1 Vibrating Reeds | p. 380 |
13.10.2 Vibrating Wires | p. 382 |
13.10.3 Quartz Tuning Forks | p. 384 |
13.10.4 Double-Paddle Oscillators | p. 384 |
13.10.5 Composite Torsional Oscillators | p. 386 |
13.11 Purification of 3 He from 4 He Impurities, and Vice Versa | p. 389 |
Problems | p. 390 |
14 Some Comments on Low-Temperature Electronics | p. 391 |
List of Symbols | p. 395 |
Conversion Factors | p. 397 |
Suppliers of Cryogenic Equipment and Materials | p. 399 |
References | p. 407 |
Index | p. 447 |