Acoustics and the performance of music : manual for acousticians, audio engineers, musicians, architects and musical instrument makers

This classic reference on musical acoustics and performance practice begins with a brief introduction to the fundamentals of acoustics and the generation of musical sounds. It then discusses the particulars of the sounds made by all the standard instruments in a modern orchestra as well as the human voice, the way in which the sounds made by these instruments are dispersed and how the room into which they are projected affects the sounds.

Author Notes

Honors:

Helmholtz-Medal of the German Acoustical Society (DEGA) 2004
Medal of Honor of Verband Deutscher Tonmeister (VDT) 2004
Fellow of the ASA

1 Introduction to Acoustics	p. 1
1.1 Fundamental Physical Principles	p. 1
1.1.1 Sound Pressure	p. 1
1.1.2 Particle Velocity	p. 2
1.1.3 Sound Power	p. 3
1.1.4 Frequency	p. 4
1.1.5 The Speed of Sound	p. 4
1.1.6 Wavelength	p. 5
1.2 Characteristics of the Auditory System	p. 6
1.2.1 The Sensation of Loudness	p. 6
1.2.2 Masking	p. 10
1.2.3 Directional Characteristics	p. 13
1.2.4 Directional Hearing	p. 15
1.2.5 The Cocktail Party Effect	p. 16
1.2.6 Masking for the Musician	p. 18
1.2.7 Sensitivity to Changes in Frequency and Sound Pressure Level	p. 20
2 Structure of Musical Sound	p. 23
2.1 Introducing the Model	p. 23
2.2 Frequency-and Level: Structures	p. 26
2.2.1 The Harmonic Tone Structure of Sound Spectra	p. 26
2.2.2 The Frequency Range of Sound Spectra	p. 28
2.2.3 Formants	p. 30
2.2.4 The Effect of Individual Partials	p. 32
2.2.5 Frequency Width of Partials	p. 33
2.2.6 Noise Contributions	p. 33
2.2.7 Dynamics and the Sound Spectrum	p. 35
2.2.8 Dynamic Range and Sound Power	p. 36
2.3 Time Structures	p. 37
2.3.1 Deviations from a Steady Vibration Process	p. 37
2.3.2 The Starting Transient	p. 38
2.3.3 Inharmonic Components	p. 40
2.3.4 Decay of Resonating Systems	p. 42
2.3.5 Decay Time and Reverberation Time	p. 42
2.3.6 Fluctuations in the Quasistationary Part	p. 44
3 Tonal Characteristics of Musical Instruments	p. 45
3.1 Brass Instruments	p. 45
3.1.1 The French Horn	p. 45
3.1.2 The Trumpet	p. 53
3.1.3 The Trombone	p. 58
3.1.4 The Tuba	p. 62
3.2 Woodwind Instruments	p. 64
3.2.1 The Flute	p. 64
3.2.2 The Oboe	p. 70
3.2.3 The Clarinet	p. 74
3.2.4 The Bassoon	p. 79
3.3 String Instruments	p. 85
3.3.1 The Violin	p. 85
3.3.2 The Viola	p. 95
3.3.3 The Cello	p. 97
3.3.4 Double Bass	p. 100
3.4 The Piano	p. 103
3.4.1 Sound Spectra	p. 103
3.4.2 Dynamics	p. 105
3.4.3 Time Structure	p. 105
3.5 The Harpsichord	p. 111
3.5.1 Sound Spectra	p. 111
3.5.2 Dynamics	p. 112
3.5.3 Time Structure	p. 113
3.6 The Harp	p. 114
3.6.1 Sound Spectra	p. 114
3.6.2 Dynamics	p. 115
3.6.3 Time Structure	p. 115
3.7 Percussion Instruments	p. 116
3.7.1 Timpani	p. 116
3.7.2 The Bass Drum	p. 118
3.7.3 Snare Drum	p. 119
3.7.4 Gong	p. 120
3.7.5 Cymbals	p. 122
3.7.6 The Triangle	p. 122
3.8 The Singing Voice	p. 123
3.8.1 Sound Spectra	p. 123
3.8.2 Dynamics	p. 124
3.8.3 Time Structure	p. 125
3.8.4 Choral Singing	p. 127
4 Directional Characteristics	p. 129
4.1 Foundations of Directional Sound Radiation	p. 129
4.1.1 Directional Effects and Polar Diagrams	p. 129
4.1.2 Evaluation and Representation	p. 130
4.2 Brass Instruments	p. 133
4.2.1 The Trumpet	p. 133
4.2.2 The Trombone	p. 135
4.2.3 The Tuba	p. 136
4.2.4 The French Horn	p. 137
4.3 Woodwind Instruments	p. 140
4.3.1 The Flute	p. 140
4.3.2 The Oboe	p. 143
4.3.3 The Clarinet	p. 146
4.3.4 The Bassoon	p. 147
4.4 String Instruments	p. 148
4.4.1 General Considerations	p. 148
4.4.2 The Violin	p. 152
4.4.3 The Viola	p. 156
4.4.4 The Cello	p. 159
4.4.5 The Double Bass	p. 161
4.5 The Grand Piano	p. 163
4.5.1 Lid Open	p. 163
4.5.2 Lid Closed	p. 167
4.5.3 Lid Half Open	p. 167
4.5.4 Lid Removed	p. 168
4.5.5 The Harpsichord	p. 168
4.6 The Harp	p. 169
4.7 Percussion Instruments	p. 170
4.7.1 The Timpani	p. 170
4.7.2 The Drum	p. 172
4.7.3 Gongs	p. 173
4.8 The Singing Voice	p. 175
Color Plates Following Page	p. 178
5 Foundations of Room Acoustics	p. 179
5.1 Reflection and Refraction	p. 179
5.1.1 Reflection from a Flat Surface	p. 179
5.1.2 Reflection from Curved Surfaces	p. 180
5.1.3 Influence of the Wavelength	p. 182
5.2 Absorption	p. 186
5.3 Reverberation	p. 188
5.4 Direct Sound and Diffuse Field	p. 190
5.4.1 The Energy Density	p. 190
5.4.2 The Direct Sound	p. 192
5.4.3 Diffuse-Field Distance	p. 194
5.5 Temporal Structure of the Sound Field	p. 196
6 Acoustical Properties of Old and New Performance Spaces	p. 203
6.1 Concert Halls	p. 203
6.1.1 Tonal Requirements	p. 203
6.1.2 Reverberation Time and Hall Size	p. 205
6.1.3 Sound Field and Hall Shape	p. 215
6.1.4 Acoustic Conditions on the Stage	p. 224
6.1.5 The Location of the Conductor	p. 231
6.2 Opera Houses	p. 234
6.2.1 Reverberation Time and Room Size	p. 234
6.2.2 Direct Sound and Early Reflections	p. 238
6.3 Churches	p. 245
6.4 Chamber Music Halls	p. 250
6.5 Studios	p. 254
6.6 Special Purpose Rooms	p. 256
6.7 Open Air Stages	p. 258
7 Seating Arrangement in the Concert Hall	p. 263
7.1 Customary Positioning of Instrument Groups	p. 263
7.2 The Tonal Effect in the Hall	p. 273
7.2.1 String Instruments	p. 273
7.2.2 Woodwind Instruments	p. 294
7.2.3 Brass Instruments	p. 305
7.2.4 Timpani	p. 322
7.2.5 Grand Pianos	p. 325
7.2.6 Harps	p. 328
7.2.7 Combined Sound of the Orchestra	p. 328
7.2.8 Singing Voices	p. 343
8 Acoustic Considerations for Instrumentation and Playing Technique	p. 347
8.1 Strength of Ensembles	p. 347
8.1.1 Historical Development	p. 347
8.1.2 Adapting to the Hall	p. 350
8.2 Dynamics	p. 359
8.3 Performance Technique	p. 370
8.3.1 Articulation and Tone Presentation	p. 370
8.3.2 Vibrato	p. 377
8.3.3 Playing Positions of Wind Instruments	p. 380
8.4 Tempo and Room Acoustics	p. 384
9 Acoustical Problems in the Opera House	p. 389
9.1 Strength of the Orchestra	p. 389
9.1.1 Historical Development	p. 389
9.1.2 Sound Level in the Hall	p. 390
9.1.3 Sound Level in the Orchestra Pit	p. 393
9.2 Seating Arrangement in the Orchestra Pit	p. 394
9.2.1 Customary Arrangements of Instrument Groups	p. 394
9.2.2 The Tonal Effect in the Hall	p. 397
9.3 Balance between Singers and Orchestra	p. 403
9.4 Arrangement of Choirs and Music on Stage	p. 407
9.4.1 Musicians in the Scene	p. 407
9.4.2 Musicians behind the Scene	p. 410
Appendix Table for Angular Dependence of the Statistical Directivity Factor	p. 413
References	p. 415
Subject Index	p. 427
Author, Composer, and Composition Index	p. 435

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