Matter and methods at low temperatures

Success of a product is determined by the market. I am therefore very pleased that the ?rst two editions of this book have been sold out, and that the publisher has asked me to work on a third, revised and expanded edition. - viously,thereisstilldemandfor"MatterandMethodsatLowTemperatures", even almost 15 years after publication of the ?rst edition. Before working on this revision, I had written to more than 20 expert colleagues to ask for their recommendations for revisions. Besides details, the essence of their response was the following (1) Essentially, leave as it is; (2) AddmoreinformationonpropertiesofmaterialsatT> 1K;(3)Addinfor- tion on suppliers of low-temperature equipment. Besides following the latter tworecommendations,Ihave,ofcourse,takenintoaccountallrelevantnew- formation and new developments that have become available since the second edition was written more than 10 years ago, in 1995. I have found this inf- mation in particular in the journals "Journal of Low Temperature Physics", "Review of Scienti?c Instruments", and "Cryogenics", as well as in the P- ceedingsoftheInternationalConferencesonLowTemperaturePhysics,which took place in Prague (1996), Helsinki (1999), Hiroshima (2002), and Orlando, FL (2005), as well as of the International Symposium on Quantum Fluids and Solids, which took place in Ithaca, NY (1995), Paris (1997), Amherst, MA (1998), Minneapolis, MN (2000), Konstanz (2001), Albuquerque, NM (2003), and Trento (2004); the latter proceedings have also been published as issues of the Journal of Low Temperature Physics.

Author Notes

Professor of Physics at the Universities of Cologne (1975-1983), Bayreuth (1983-1996), Dresden (1997-2003); Director at the Forschungszentrum Jülich (1975-1983); Scientific Director of the Forschungszentrum Rossendorf (1996-2003); Editor of "Journal of Low Temperature Physics" from 1992 - 2005; President (Past president) of Leibniz Gemeinschaft 1998-2001 (2001-2005)

1 Introduction	p. 1
2 Properties of Cryoliquids	p. 7
2.1 Liquid Air, Liquid Oxygen, Liquid Nitrogen	p. 7
2.2 Liquid Hydrogen	p. 8
2.3 Liquid Helium	p. 13
2.3.1 Some Properties of the Helium Isotopes	p. 13
2.3.2 Latent Heat of Evaporation and Vapour Pressure	p. 17
2.3.3 Specific Heat	p. 20
2.3.4 Transport Properties of Liquid 4 He: Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity	p. 23
2.3.5 Superfluid Film Flow	p. 25
2.3.6 Liquid 3 He and 3 He- 4 He Mixtures at Millikelvin Temperatures	p. 27
Problems	p. 32
3 Solid Matter at Low Temperatures	p. 33
3.1 Specific Heat	p. 34
3.1.1 Insulators	p. 34
3.1.2 Metals	p. 38
3.1.3 Superconducting Metals	p. 40
3.1.4 Non-Crystalline Solids	p. 42
3.1.5 Magnetic Specific Heat	p. 44
3.1.6 The Low-Temperature Specific Heat of Copper and Platinum	p. 47
3.1.7 Specific Heat of Some Selected Materials	p. 47
3.1.8 Calorimetry or How to Measure Heat Capacities	p. 50
3.2 Thermal Expansion	p. 58
3.2.1 Thermal Expansion of Solids	p. 58
3.2.2 Dilatometers or How to Measure Thermal Expansions	p. 61
3.3 Thermal Conductivity	p. 62
3.3.1 Lattice Conductivity: Phonons	p. 63
3.3.2 Electronic Thermal Conductivity	p. 67
3.3.3 Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures	p. 70
3.3.4 Superconducting Metals	p. 71
3.3.5 Relation Between Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: The Wiedemann-Franz Law	p. 72
3.3.6 Influence of Impurities on Conductivity	p. 74
3.3.7 Thermal Conductivities of Copper, Silver and Aluminum at Low Temperatures	p. 77
3.3.8 How to Measure Thermal Conductivities	p. 79
3.4 Magnetic Susceptibilities	p. 81
3.4.1 Magnetic Susceptibilities of Some Selected Materials	p. 81
3.4.2 How to Measure Susceptibilities and Magnetizations	p. 84
Problems	p. 92
4 Thermal Contact and Thermal Isolation	p. 95
4.1 Selection of the Material with the Appropriate Cryogenic Thermal Conductivity	p. 95
4.2 Heat Switches	p. 97
4.2.1 Gaseous and Mechanical Heat Switches	p. 97
4.2.2 Superconducting Heat Switches	p. 98
4.3 Thermal Boundary Resistance	p. 102
4.3.1 Boundary Resistance Between Metals	p. 102
4.3.2 Boundary Resistance Between Liquid Helium and Solids	p. 105
Problems	p. 113
5 Helium-4 Cryostats and Closed-Cycle Refrigerators	p. 115
5.1 Use of Liquid 4 He in Low-Temperature Equipment	p. 116
5.1.1 Cool-Down Period	p. 116
5.1.2 Running Phase of the Experiment	p. 117
5.2 Helium-4 Cryostats	p. 120
5.2.1 Double-Walled Glass Dewars	p. 121
5.2.2 Metal Dewars	p. 123
5.2.3 Cryostats for T > 5K	p. 124
5.2.4 Cryostats with Variable Temperature for 1.3 K ≤ T ≤ 4.2 K	p. 125
5.2.5 Auxiliary Equipment	p. 130
5.3 Closed-Cycle Refrigerators	p. 133
5.4 Temperature Control	p. 136
Problems	p. 137
6 Helium-3 Cryostats	p. 139
6.1 Helium-3 Cryostats with External Pumps	p. 140
6.2 Helium-3 Cryostats with Internal Adsorption Pumps	p. 142
Problems	p. 147
7 The 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator	p. 149
7.1 Properties of Liquid 3 He- 4 He Mixtures	p. 150
7.1.1 Phase Diagram and Solubility	p. 150
7.1.2 3 He- 4 He Mixtures as Fermi Liquids	p. 153
7.1.3 Finite Solubility of 3 He in 4 He	p. 154
7.1.4 Cooling Power of the Dilution Process	p. 157
7.1.5 Osmotic Pressure	p. 160
7.2 Realization of a 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator	p. 163
7.3 Properties of the Main Components of a 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerator	p. 165
7.3.1 Mixing Chamber	p. 165
7.3.2 Still	p. 167
7.3.3 Heat Exchangers	p. 168
7.4 Examples of 3 He- 4 He Dilution Refrigerators	p. 176
Problems	p. 188
8 Refrigeration by Solidification of Liquid 3 He: Pomeranchuck Cooling	p. 191
8.1 Phase and Entropy Diagrams of 3 He	p. 192
8.2 Entropies of Liquid and Solid "He	p. 193
8.3 Pomeranchuk Cooling	p. 195
Problems	p. 201
9 Refrigeration by Adiabatic Demagnetization of a Paramagnetic Salt	p. 203
9.1 The Principle of Magnetic Refrigeration	p. 204
9.2 Thermodynamics of Magnetic Refrigeration	p. 205
9.3 Non-Interacting Magnetic Dipoles in a Magnetic Field	p. 207
9.4 Paramagnetic Salts and Magnetic Refrigerators	p. 209
Problems	p. 212
10 Refrigeration by Adiabatic Nuclear Demagnetization	p. 215
10.1 Some Equations Relevant for Nuclear Refrigeration	p. 219
10.2 Differences in Nuclear and Electronic Demagnetization	p. 221
10.3 Interaction Between Conduction Electrons and Nuclei	p. 223
10.3.1 Electron-Phonon Coupling	p. 223
10.3.2 Nucleus-Electron Coupling	p. 223
10.4 Influence of an External Heat Load and the Optimum Final Magnetic Field	p. 228
10.5 Heat Leaks	p. 231
10.5.1 External Heat Leaks	p. 231
10.5.2 Eddy Current Heating	p. 234
10.5.3 Internal, Time-Dependent Heat Leaks	p. 235
10.5.4 Heating from Radioactivity and High-Energy Particles	p. 238
10.6 Nuclear Refrigerants	p. 238
10.7 Hyperfine Enhanced Nuclear Refrigeration	p. 241
10.8 Nuclear Demagnetization Refrigerators	p. 244
Problems	p. 257
11 Temperature Scales and Temperature Fixed Points	p. 259
11.1 Thermodynamic Temperature	p. 259
11.2 The International Temperature Scale ITS-90	p. 261
11.3 The New Provisional Low-Temperature Scale PLTS-2000	p. 264
11.4 Practical but not Officially Accepted Low-Temperature Fixed Points	p. 271
11.4.1 Fixed Points of EPT-76	p. 271
11.4.2 The NBS Superconducting Fixed-Point Device	p. 271
11.4.3 The SRD 1000 Superconducting Fixed-Point Device	p. 274
11.4.4 The Superfluid Transition of Liquid 4 He	p. 275
Problems	p. 276
12 Low-Temperature Thermometry	p. 277
12.1 Gas Thermometry	p. 278
12.2 Helium Vapour Pressure Thermometry	p. 279
12.3 Helium Melting Pressure Thermometry	p. 282
12.4 Thermoelectricity	p. 283
12.5 Resistance Thermometry	p. 287
12.5.1 Metals	p. 287
12.5.2 Doped-Germanium and Carbon Resistors	p. 290
12.5.3 Oxide Compounds: RuO 2 and Cernox Thermometers	p. 300
12.5.4 Resistance Bridges	p. 305
12.6 Coulomb Blockade Thermometry	p. 308
12.7 Noise Thermometry	p. 312
12.8 Capacitance Thermometry	p. 317
12.9 Magnetic Thermometry with Electronic Paramagnets	p. 320
12.10 Magnetic Thermometry with Nuclear Paramagnets	p. 328
12.10.1 Non-Resonant, Integral Detection of Nuclear Magnetization	p. 329
12.10.2 Selective Excitation but Non-Resonant Detection of Nuclear Magnetization	p. 331
12.10.3 Resonant Excitation and Resonant Detection of Nuclear Magnetization	p. 333
12.11 Magnetic Thermometry via Anisotropy of Gamma Rays	p. 345
12.12 Summary	p. 350
Problems	p. 351
13 Miscellaneous Cryogenic Devices and Design Aids	p. 353
13.1 Cryogenic Pressure Transducers for Thermometry and Manometry	p. 353
13.1.1 Capacitive Pressure Transducers	p. 353
13.1.2 Inductive Pressure Transducers	p. 359
13.2 Cold Valves	p. 359
13.3 Coaxial Cables and Feedthroughs	p. 361
13.4 Small Magnets and Magnet Leads	p. 363
13.4.1 Small Superconducting Magnets and Magnet Leads	p. 363
13.4.2 Small Pulsed Normal-Conducting Magnets	p. 366
13.5 Shielding Against Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Fields Inside of Shields	p. 366
13.5.1 Normal-Conducting Shields	p. 367
13.5.2 Superconducting Shields	p. 368
13.5.3 Magnetic Fields Inside of Shields	p. 369
13.6 Sintered Metal Heat Exchangers	p. 370
13.7 Low-Temperature Motors and Rotators	p. 373
13.8 Optical Experiments at Low Temperatures	p. 374
13.9 Electronic Tunnel-Junction Refrigerators	p. 376
13.10 Torsional and Translational Oscillators	p. 379
13.10.1 Vibrating Reeds	p. 380
13.10.2 Vibrating Wires	p. 382
13.10.3 Quartz Tuning Forks	p. 384
13.10.4 Double-Paddle Oscillators	p. 384
13.10.5 Composite Torsional Oscillators	p. 386
13.11 Purification of 3 He from 4 He Impurities, and Vice Versa	p. 389
Problems	p. 390
14 Some Comments on Low-Temperature Electronics	p. 391
List of Symbols	p. 395
Conversion Factors	p. 397
Suppliers of Cryogenic Equipment and Materials	p. 399
References	p. 407
Index	p. 447

Available:*

On Order

Summary

Summary

Author Notes

Table of Contents