The atmosphere : an introduction to meteorology

Using everyday, easy-to-grasp examples to reinforce basic concepts, this highly regarded handbook remains the standard introduction to meteorology and the atmosphere -- components, problems, and applications. Includes the most up-to-date coverage of topics such as: ozone depletion; the ultraviolet index; temperature; dew point temperature and orographic effects; wildfires and weather; thunderstorms and lightning; the record-breaking Florida hurricane season; effects of air pollution, and more. Incorporates top-quality visuals, including new satellite images and illustrations by the award-winning Dennis Tasa, to demonstrate the highly visual nature of meteorology. Uses a largely non-technical writing style to help readers grasp important concepts. For those interested in learning more about meteorology.

Preface	p. xiv
1 Introduction to the Atmosphere	p. 1
Meteorology, Weather, and Climate	p. 3
Atmospheric Hazard: Assault by the Elements	p. 5
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry	p. 6
Hypothesis	p. 6
Theory	p. 6
Scientific Methods	p. 8
Observing the Atmosphere	p. 8
The Atmosphere: A Part of the Earth System	p. 10
Earth's Four Spheres	p. 12
Earth System Science	p. 14
Earth as a System	p. 15
Composition of the Atmosphere	p. 16
Major Components	p. 16
Carbon Dioxide	p. 17
Variable Components	p. 17
Ozone Depletion-A Global Issue	p. 20
The Ozone Hole	p. 20
Effects of Ozone Depletion	p. 22
Montreal Protocol	p. 22
Extent of the Atmosphere	p. 23
Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere	p. 24
Troposphere	p. 24
Stratosphere	p. 25
Mesosphere	p. 25
Thermosphere	p. 25
Vertical Variations in Composition	p. 26
Ionosphere	p. 27
The Auroras	p. 27
Chapter Summary	p. 27
Vocabulary Review	p. 29
Review Questions	p. 29
Problems	p. 30
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 31
Box 1-1 Monitoring Earth From Space	p. 11
Box 1-2 Earth's Atmosphere Evolves	p. 18
Box 1-3 Important Reactions Involving Ozone in the Stratosphere	p. 21
2 Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	p. 32
Earth-Sun Relationships	p. 34
Earth's Motions	p. 34
The Seasons	p. 35
Earth's Orientation	p. 36
Solstices and Equinoxes	p. 37
Energy Heat and Temperature	p. 41
Forms of Energy	p. 41
Temperature	p. 42
Heat	p. 42
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer	p. 42
Conduction	p. 42
Convection	p. 44
Radiation	p. 44
What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation?	p. 48
Reflection and Scattering	p. 48
Absorption by Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	p. 50
Radiation Emitted by Earth	p. 51
Heating the Atmosphere	p. 51
The Greenhouse Effect	p. 53
Role of Clouds in Heating Earth	p. 54
Heat Budget	p. 55
Latitudinal Heat Balance	p. 57
Chapter Summary	p. 60
Vocabulary Review	p. 61
Review Questions	p. 61
Problems	p. 62
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 63
Box 2-1 When Are the Seasons?	p. 40
Box 2-2 The Analemma	p. 43
Box 2-3 Ultraviolet Index	p. 46
Box 2-4 Radiation Laws	p. 48
Box 2-5 Infrared Imaging	p. 55
Box 2-6 Solar Power	p. 56
3 Temperature	p. 64
For the Record: Air-Temperature Data	p. 65
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature	p. 68
Land and Water	p. 68
Ocean Currents	p. 73
Altitude	p. 74
Geographic Position	p. 75
Cloud Cover and Albedo	p. 75
World Distribution of Temperatures	p. 77
Cycles of Air Temperature	p. 80
Daily Temperature Variations	p. 81
Magnitude of Daily Temperature Changes	p. 82
Annual Temperature Variations	p. 82
Temperature Measurement	p. 82
Mechanical Thermometers	p. 83
Electrical Thermometers	p. 86
Instrument Shelters	p. 86
Temperature Scales	p. 87
Applications of Temperature Data	p. 88
Heating Degree-Days	p. 88
Cooling Degree-Days	p. 89
Growing Degree-Days	p. 89
Temperature and Comfort	p. 89
Chapter Summary	p. 91
Vocabulary Review	p. 92
Review Questions	p. 93
Problems	p. 94
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 95
Box 3-1 North America's Hottest and Coldest Places	p. 69
Box 3-2 Atmospheric Hazard: Heat Waves-Deadly Events	p. 70
Box 3-3 Latitude and Temperature Range	p. 79
Box 3-4 How Cities Influence Temperature: The Urban Heat Island	p. 84
Box 3-5 Windchill: The Cooling Power of Moving Air	p. 92
4 Moisture and Atmospheric Stability	p. 96
Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere	p. 98
Water's Changes of State	p. 99
Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor	p. 99
Latent Heat	p. 000
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air	p. 103
Vapor Pressure and Saturation	p. 104
Relative Humidity	p. 106
How Relative Humidity Changes	p. 106
Natural Changes in Relative Humidity	p. 109
Dew-Point Temperature	p. 110
Humidity Measurement	p. 111
Adiabatic Temperature Changes	p. 113
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation	p. 114
Processes That Lift Air	p. 114
Orographic Lifting	p. 115
Frontal Wedging	p. 116
Convergence	p. 117
Localized Convective Lifting	p. 118
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability	p. 120
Types of Stability	p. 120
Stability and Daily Weather	p. 123
How Stability Changes	p. 124
Temperature Changes and Stability	p. 125
Vertical Air Movement and Stability	p. 125
Chapter Summary	p. 125
Vocabulary Review	p. 127
Review Questions	p. 127
Problems	p. 128
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 129
Box 4-1 Water: A Unique Substance	p. 100
Box 4-2 Dry Air at 100 Percent Relative Humidity?	p. 107
Box 4-3 Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers	p. 108
Box 4-4 Atmospheric Hazard: Humidity and Heat Stress	p. 112
Box 4-5 Precipitation Records and Mountainous Terrain	p. 116
Box 4-6 Orographic Effects: Windward Precipitation and Leeward Rain Shadows	p. 118
5 Forms of Condensation and Precipitation	p. 130
Cloud Formation	p. 132
Condensation Aloft	p. 132
Growth of Cloud Droplets	p. 132
Cloud Classification	p. 133
High Clouds	p. 133
Middle Clouds	p. 133
Low Clouds	p. 136
Clouds of Vertical Development	p. 136
Cloud Varieties	p. 137
Types of Fog	p. 138
Fogs Formed by Cooling	p. 139
Fogs Formed by Evaporation	p. 142
Dew and Frost	p. 142
How Precipitation Forms	p. 143
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process	p. 145
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision-Coalescence Process	p. 147
Forms of Precipitation	p. 150
Rain	p. 150
Snow	p. 151
Sleet and Glaze	p. 151
Hail	p. 151
Rime	p. 155
Precipitation Measurement	p. 155
Standard Instruments	p. 155
Measuring Snowfall	p. 156
Measurement Errors	p. 156
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar	p. 157
Intentional Weather Modification	p. 157
Cloud Seeding	p. 158
Fog and Cloud Dispersal	p. 159
Hail Suppression	p. 160
Frost Prevention	p. 161
Understanding the Role of Clouds in the Climate System	p. 162
Chapter Summary	p. 163
Vocabulary Review	p. 163
Review Questions	p. 164
Problems	p. 164
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 165
Box 5-1 Aircraft Contrails and Cloudiness	p. 138
Box 5-2 Forces Acting on Cloud Droplets and Raindrops	p. 144
Box 5-3 Science and Serendipity	p. 146
Box 5-4 Atmospheric Hazard: Worst Winter Weather	p. 152
Box 5-5 The Hail Cannons of Europe	p. 160
6 Air Pressure and Winds	p. 166
Understanding Air Pressure	p. 168
Measuring Air Pressure	p. 169
Pressure Changes with Altitude	p. 172
Horizontal Variations in Air Pressure	p. 173
Influence of Temperature and Water Vapor on Air Pressure	p. 174
Airflow and Pressure	p. 174
Factors Affecting Wind	p. 175
Pressure-Gradient Force	p. 175
Coriolis Force	p. 178
Friction	p. 181
Winds Aloft and Geostrophic Flow	p. 181
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind	p. 183
Surface Winds	p. 186
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion	p. 187
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones	p. 188
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow	p. 189
Wind Measurement	p. 190
Chapter Summary	p. 194
Vocabulary Review	p. 195
Review Questions	p. 195
Problems	p. 195
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 195
Box 6-1 Air Pressure and Aviation	p. 171
Box 6-2 Pressure-Gradient Force	p. 176
Box 6-3 Coriolis Force As a Function of Wind Speed and Latitude	p. 180
Box 6-4 Do Baseballs Really Fly Farther at Denver's Coors Field?	p. 185
Box 6-5 Wind Energy: An Alternative with Potential	p. 192
7 Circulation of the Atmosphere	p. 196
Scales of Atmospheric Motion	p. 198
Large- and Small-Scale Circulation	p. 199
Structure of Wind Patterns	p. 199
Local Winds	p. 200
Land and Sea Breezes	p. 202
Mountain and Valley Breezes	p. 202
Chinook (Foehn) Winds	p. 203
Katabatic (Fall) Winds	p. 203
Country Breezes	p. 204
Global Circulation	p. 205
Single-Cell Circulation Model	p. 205
Three-Cell Circulation Model	p. 206
Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds	p. 207
Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts	p. 207
Semipermanent Pressure Systems: The Real World	p. 208
Monsoons	p. 210
The Asian Monsoon	p. 210
The North American Monsoon	p. 211
The Westerlies	p. 212
Why Westerlies?	p. 212
Jet Streams	p. 213
Origin of the Polar Jet Stream	p. 213
Subtropical Jet Stream	p. 215
Waves in the Westerlies	p. 215
Westerlies and Earth's Heat Budget	p. 215
Global Winds and Ocean Currents	p. 217
The Importance of Ocean Currents	p. 218
Ocean Currents and Upwelling	p. 219
El Nino and La Nina	p. 219
Global Distribution of Precipitation	p. 222
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation	p. 223
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents	p. 225
Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent	p. 225
Chapter Summary	p. 229
Vocabulary Review	p. 230
Review Questions	p. 231
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 231
Box 7-1 Dust Devils	p. 201
Box 7-2 Atmospheric Hazard: Santa Ana Winds and Wildfires	p. 204
Box 7-3 Monitoring Winds from Space	p. 222
Box 7-4 Tracking El Nino from Space	p. 228
8 Air Masses	p. 232
What Is an Air Mass?	p. 234
Source Regions	p. 235
Classifying Air Masses	p. 236
Air-Mass Modification	p. 237
Properties of North American Air Masses	p. 237
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses	p. 237
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water	p. 239
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses	p. 239
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses	p. 244
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses	p. 245
Chapter Summary	p. 246
Vocabulary Review	p. 247
Review Questions	p. 247
Problems	p. 248
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 249
Box 8-1 The Siberian Express	p. 240
Box 8-2 Atmospheric Hazard: An Extraordinary Lake-Effect Snowstorm	p. 242
9 Weather Patterns	p. 250
Polar-Front Theory (Norwegian Cyclone Model)	p. 253
Fronts	p. 254
Warm Fronts	p. 255
Cold Fronts	p. 257
Stationary Fronts	p. 258
Occluded Fronts	p. 258
Drylines	p. 260
Life Cycle of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	p. 260
Formation: The Clash of Two Air Masses	p. 260
Development of Cyclonic Flow	p. 260
Occlusion: The Beginning of the End	p. 262
Idealized Weather of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	p. 262
Cyclone Formation	p. 265
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation	p. 265
Divergence and Convergence Aloft	p. 266
Traveling Cyclones	p. 267
Patterns of Movement	p. 267
Flow Aloft and Cyclonic Migration	p. 269
Anticyclonic Weather and Blocking Highs	p. 269
Case Study of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	p. 270
Violent Spring Weather	p. 272
Weather in Peoria	p. 278
A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model	p. 279
Chapter Summary	p. 281
Vocabulary Review	p. 282
Review Questions	p. 282
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 283
Box 9-1 Winds As a Forecasting Tool	p. 266
Box 9-2 Atmospheric Hazard: The Great Flood of 1993	p. 272
10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes	p. 284
What's in a Name?	p. 286
Thunderstorms	p. 287
Air-Mass Thunderstorms	p. 287
Stages of Development	p. 288
Occurrence	p. 289
Severe Thunderstorms	p. 290
Supercell Thunderstorms	p. 291
Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Complexes	p. 291
Microbursts	p. 296
Lightning and Thunder	p. 296
What Causes Lightning?	p. 297
The Lightning Stroke	p. 297
Thunder	p. 300
Tornadoes	p. 300
The Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes	p. 302
Tornado Development	p. 303
Tornado Climatology	p. 303
Profile of a Tornado	p. 305
Tornado Destruction	p. 306
Tornado Forecasting	p. 308
Tornado Watches and Warnings	p. 308
Doppler Radar	p. 310
Chapter Summary	p. 313
Vocabulary Review	p. 315
Review Questions	p. 315
Problems	p. 316
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 317
Box 10-1 Atmospheric Hazard: Flash Floods-The Number One Thunderstorm Killer	p. 292
Box 10-2 Atmospheric Hazard: Lightning Safety	p. 299
Box 10-3 Atmospheric Hazard: Surviving a Violent Tornado	p. 301
Box 10-4 Atmospheric Hazard: The April 1974 Super Tornado Outbreak	p. 309
Box 10-5 The Doppler Effect	p. 312
11 Hurricanes	p. 318
Profile of a Hurricane	p. 320
Hurricane Formation and Decay	p. 325
Hurricane Formation	p. 326
Hurricane Decay	p. 327
Hurricane Destruction	p. 327
Storm Surge	p. 329
Wind Damage	p. 330
Inland Flooding	p. 331
Estimating the Intensity of a Hurricane	p. 332
Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes	p. 333
The Role of Satellites	p. 338
Aircraft Reconnaissance	p. 338
Radar and Data Buoys	p. 338
Hurricane Watches and Warnings	p. 339
Chapter Summary	p. 341
Vocabulary Review	p. 341
Review Questions	p. 342
Problems	p. 342
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 343
Box 11-1 The Conservation of Angular Momentum	p. 324
Box 11-2 Naming Tropical Storms and Hurricanes	p. 328
Box 11-3 Atmospheric Hazard: Examining Hurricane Katrina from Space	p. 334
Box 11-4 Atmospheric Hazard: A 3-D Look Inside a Hurricane	p. 340
12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting	p. 344
The Weather Business: A Brief Overview	p. 346
Weather Analysis	p. 348
Gathering Data	p. 348
Weather Maps: Pictures of the Atmosphere	p. 350
Weather Forecasting	p. 352
Numerical Weather Prediction: Forecasting by Computer	p. 353
Other Forecasting Methods	p. 356
Upper Airflow and Weather Forecasting	p. 358
Upper-Level Maps	p. 358
The Connection Between Upper-Level Flow and Surface Weather	p. 360
Long-Range Forecasts	p. 364
Forecast Accuracy	p. 365
Satellites in Weather Forecasting	p. 368
What Weather Satellites Provide	p. 369
Satellite Measurements	p. 370
Chapter Summary	p. 372
Vocabulary Review	p. 372
Review Questions	p. 373
Problems	p. 373
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 375
Box 12-1 Atmospheric Hazard: Debris Flow in the San Francisco Bay Region	p. 348
Box 12-2 Constructing a Synoptic Weather Chart	p. 352
Box 12-3 Numerical Weather Prediction	p. 354
Box 12-4 Precipitation Probability Forecasts	p. 366
Box 12-5 What Is "Normal"?	p. 368
13 Air Pollution	p. 376
A Brief Historical Perspective	p. 376
Air Pollution: Not a New Problem	p. 379
Some Historic Episodes	p. 380
Sources and Types of Air Pollution	p. 380
Primary Pollutants	p. 381
Secondary Pollutants	p. 386
Trends in Air Quality	p. 387
Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution	p. 391
Wind As a Factor	p. 391
The Role of Atmospheric Stability	p. 391
Acid Precipitation	p. 393
Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation	p. 393
Effects of Acid Precipitation	p. 393
Chapter Summary	p. 396
Vocabulary Review	p. 397
Review Questions	p. 397
Problems	p. 397
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 397
Box 13-1 Atmospheric Hazard: The Great Smog of 1952	p. 382
Box 13-2 Air Pollution Changes the Climate of Cities	p. 385
Box 13-3 Radon-An Example of Indoor Air Pollution	p. 388
14 The Changing Climate	p. 398
The Climate System	p. 400
How Is Climate Change Detected?	p. 400
Seafloor Sediment-A Storehouse of Climate Data	p. 400
Oxygen Isotope Analysis	p. 401
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice	p. 402
Tree Rings-Archives of Environmental History	p. 403
Other Types of Proxy Data	p. 405
Natural Causes of Climate Change	p. 405
Plate Tectonics and Climate Change	p. 406
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change	p. 407
Orbital Variations	p. 409
Solar Variability and Climate	p. 412
Human Impact on Global Climate	p. 413
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change	p. 413
CO[subscript 2] Levels Are Rising	p. 414
The Atmosphere's Response	p. 415
The Role of Trace Gases	p. 415
Climate-Feedback Mechanisms	p. 417
How Aerosols Influence Climate	p. 419
Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming	p. 419
Water Resources and Agriculture	p. 420
Sea-Level Rise	p. 421
The Changing Arctic	p. 421
The Potential for "Surprises"	p. 424
Chapter Summary	p. 426
Vocabulary Review	p. 427
Review Questions	p. 427
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 427
Box 14-1 Cryosphere-The World of Ice	p. 402
Box 14-2 A Possible Link Between Volcanism and Climate Change in the Geologic Past	p. 410
Box 14-3 Computer Models of Climate: Important Yet Imperfect Tools	p. 414
Box 14-4 Possible Consequences of Climate Change on the United States	p. 422
Box 14-5 Polar Warming and the Collapse of the Antarctic Ice Shelves	p. 425
15 World Climates	p. 428
Climate Classification	p. 430
Climate Controls: A Summary	p. 432
Latitude	p. 432
Land and Water	p. 432
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds	p. 432
Mountains and Highlands	p. 433
Ocean Currents	p. 433
Pressure and Wind Systems	p. 436
World Climates-An Overview	p. 436
The Wet Tropics (Af, Am)	p. 436
Temperature Characteristics	p. 438
Precipitation Characteristics	p. 439
Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw)	p. 441
Temperature Characteristics	p. 441
Precipitation Characteristics	p. 441
The Monsoon	p. 442
The Cw Variant	p. 442
The Dry Climates (B)	p. 443
What Is Meant by "Dry"?	p. 444
Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh)	p. 445
West Coast Subtropical Deserts	p. 447
Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk)	p. 449
Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C)	p. 450
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)	p. 450
The Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)	p. 452
The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb)	p. 453
Humid Continental Climates with Severe Winters (D)	p. 455
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa)	p. 455
The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd)	p. 458
The Polar Climates (E)	p. 459
The Tundra Climate (ET)	p. 459
The Ice-Cap Climate (EF)	p. 461
Highland Climates	p. 462
Chapter Summary	p. 465
Vocabulary Review	p. 466
Review Questions	p. 467
Problems	p. 468
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 469
Box 15-1 Climate Diagrams	p. 433
Box 15-2 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest-The Impact on Its Soils	p. 438
Box 15-3 The Disappearing Aral Sea	p. 448
Box 15-4 Atmospheric Hazard: Understanding Drought	p. 456
16 Optical Phenomena of the Atmostphere	p. 470
Nature of Light	p. 472
Reflection	p. 472
Refraction	p. 473
Mirages	p. 474
Rainbows	p. 476
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars	p. 479
The Glory	p. 482
The Corona	p. 483
Chapter Summary	p. 485
Vocabulary Review	p. 485
Review Questions	p. 486
Atmospheric Science Online	p. 486
Box 16-1 Are Highway Mirages Real?	p. 476
Box 16-2 Iridescent Clouds	p. 484
Appendix A Metric Units	p. 487
Appendix B Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map	p. 490
Appendix C Relative Humitidy and Dew-Point Tables	p. 497
Appendix D Laws Relating To Gases	p. 499
Appendix E Newton's Laws of Motion	p. 500
Appendix F Climate Data	p. 501
Glossary	p. 506
Index	p. 515

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