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Summary
Summary
Multiscale Dissipative Mechanisms and Hierarchical Surfaces covers the rapidly developing topics of hierarchical surfaces, roughness-induced superhydrophobicity and biomimetic surfaces. The research in these topics has been progressing rapidly in the recent years due to the advances in the nanosciences and surfaces science and due to potential applications in nanotechnology. The first in its field, this monograph provides a comprehensive review of these subjects and presents the background introduction as well as recent and new results in the area.
Author Notes
Michael Nosnovsky is a Research Fellow at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (USA). His reaearch interests include nanomechanics, multi-scale modeling in surface scienes and tribology, biomimetics. He got his Ph.D. degree in Applied Mechanics from Northeastern University (Boston, USA) and worked as a Visiting Scholar at the Ohio State University.
Dr. Bharat Bhushan is an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Winbigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, a Graduate Research Faculty Advisor in the Department of Materials Science & Engineering, and the Director of the Nanotribology Laboratory for Information Storage & MEMS/NEMS (NLIM) at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. He holds two M.S., a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering/mechanics, an MBA, and three semi-honorary and honorary doctorates. His research interests are in nanotribology and nanomechanics and their applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS/NEMS (Nanotechnology). He has authored 5 technical books, more than 70 handbook chapters, more than 600 technical papers in referred journals, and more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 40 books, and holds 16 U.S. and foreign patents. He is co-editor of Springer NanoScience and Technology Series and Microsystem Technologies - Micro- & Nanosystems and Information Storage & Processing Systems (formerly called Journal of Information Storage and Processing Systems). He has organized various international conferences and workshops. He is the recipient of numerous prestigious awards and international fellowships. He is a member of various professional societies, including the International Academy of Engineering (Russia).
Table of Contents
Preface | p. v |
Nomenclature | p. xiii |
Glossary | p. xv |
Abbreviations | p. xvii |
Part I Surface Roughness and Hierarchical Friction Mechanisms | |
1 Introduction | p. 3 |
1.1 Surfaces and Surface Free Energy | p. 3 |
1.2 Mesoscale | p. 5 |
1.3 Hierarchy | p. 7 |
1.4 Dissipation | p. 7 |
1.5 Tribology | p. 9 |
1.6 Biomimetics: From Engineering to Biology and Back | p. 11 |
2 Rough Surface Topography | p. 13 |
2.1 Rough Surface Characterization | p. 13 |
2.2 Statistical Analysis of Random Surface Roughness | p. 17 |
2.3 Fractal Surface Roughness | p. 20 |
2.4 Contact of Rough Solid Surfaces | p. 23 |
2.5 Surface Modification | p. 25 |
2.5.1 Surface Texturing | p. 25 |
2.5.2 Layer Deposition | p. 25 |
2.6 Summary | p. 26 |
3 Mechanisms of Dry Friction, Their Scaling and Linear Properties | p. 27 |
3.1 Approaches to the Multiscale Nature of Friction | p. 28 |
3.2 Mechanisms of Dry Friction | p. 31 |
3.2.1 Adhesive Friction | p. 31 |
3.2.2 Deformation of Asperities | p. 38 |
3.2.3 Plastic Yield | p. 39 |
3.2.4 Fracture | p. 39 |
3.2.5 Ratchet and Cobblestone Mechanisms | p. 39 |
3.2.6 "Third Body" Mechanism | p. 40 |
3.2.7 Discussion | p. 40 |
3.3 Friction as a Linear Phenomenon | p. 40 |
3.3.1 Friction, Controlled by Real Area of Contact | p. 41 |
3.3.2 Friction Controlled by Average Surface Slope | p. 43 |
3.3.3 Other Explanations of the Linearity of Friction | p. 44 |
3.3.4 Linearity and the "Small Parameter" | p. 45 |
3.4 Summary | p. 45 |
4 Friction as a Nonlinear Hierarchical Phenomenon | p. 47 |
4.1 Nonlinear Effects in Dry Friction | p. 47 |
4.1.1 Nonlinearity of the Amontons-Coulomb Rule | p. 47 |
4.1.2 Dynamic Instabilities Associated with the Nonlinearity | p. 48 |
4.1.3 Velocity-Dependence and Dynamic Friction | p. 49 |
4.1.4 Interdependence of the Load-, Size-, and Velocity-Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction | p. 50 |
4.1.5 Stick-Slip Motion | p. 51 |
4.1.6 Self-Organized Criticality | p. 52 |
4.2 Nonlinearity and Hierarchy | p. 53 |
4.3 Heterogeneity, Hierarchy and Energy Dissipation | p. 55 |
4.3.1 Ideal vs. Real Contact Situations | p. 55 |
4.3.2 Measure of Inhomogeneity and Dissipation at Various Hierarchy Levels | p. 55 |
4.3.3 Order-Parameter and Mesoscopic Functional | p. 59 |
4.3.4 Kinetics of the Atomic-Scale Friction | p. 59 |
4.4 Mapping of Friction at Various Hierarchy Levels | p. 61 |
4.5 Summary | p. 62 |
Part II Solid-Liquid Friction and Superhydrophobicity | |
5 Solid-Liquid Interaction and Capillary Effects | p. 65 |
5.1 Three Phase States of Matter | p. 65 |
5.2 Phase Equilibrium and Stability | p. 67 |
5.3 Water Phase Diagram at the Nanoscale | p. 69 |
5.4 Surface Free Energy and the Laplace Equation | p. 72 |
5.5 Contact Angle and the Young Equation | p. 73 |
5.6 Kelvin's Equation | p. 76 |
5.7 Capillary Effects and Stability Issues | p. 77 |
5.8 Summary | p. 79 |
6 Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobicity | p. 81 |
6.1 The Phenomenon of Superhydrophobicity | p. 81 |
6.2 Contact Angle Analysis | p. 85 |
6.3 Heterogeneous Surfaces and Wenzel and Cassie Equations | p. 86 |
6.3.1 Contact Angle with a Rough and Heterogeneous Surfaces | p. 86 |
6.3.2 The Cassie-Baxter Equation | p. 87 |
6.3.3 Limitations of the Wenzel and Cassie Equations | p. 90 |
6.3.4 Range of Applicability of the Wenzel and Cassie Equations | p. 92 |
6.4 Calculation of the Contact Angle for Selected Surfaces | p. 96 |
6.4.1 Two-Dimensional Periodic Profiles | p. 96 |
6.4.2 Three-Dimensional Surfaces | p. 100 |
6.4.3 Surface Optimization for Maximum Contact Angle | p. 105 |
6.5 Contact Angle Hysteresis | p. 107 |
6.5.1 Origin of the Contact Angle Hysteresis | p. 107 |
6.5.2 Pinning of the Triple Line | p. 109 |
6.5.3 Contact Angle Hysteresis and the Adhesion Hysteresis | p. 110 |
6.6 Summary | p. 112 |
7 Stability of the Composite Interface, Roughness and Meniscus Force | p. 115 |
7.1 Destabilization of the Composite Interface | p. 115 |
7.1.1 Destabilization Due to Capillary and Gravitational Waves | p. 116 |
7.1.2 Probabilistic Model | p. 121 |
7.1.3 Analysis of Rough Profiles | p. 122 |
7.1.4 Effect of Droplet Weight | p. 123 |
7.2 Contact Angle with Three-Dimensional Solid Harmonic Surface | p. 126 |
7.2.1 Three-Dimensional Harmonic Rough Surface | p. 126 |
7.2.2 Calculations of the Contact Areas | p. 128 |
7.2.3 Metastable States | p. 129 |
7.2.4 Overall Contact Angle | p. 130 |
7.2.5 Discussion of Results | p. 131 |
7.2.6 The Similarity of Bubbles and Droplets | p. 133 |
7.3 Capillary Adhesion Force Due to the Meniscus | p. 134 |
7.3.1 Sphere in Contact with a Smooth Surface | p. 134 |
7.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contact | p. 136 |
7.4 Roughness Optimization | p. 137 |
7.5 Effect of the Hierarchical Roughness | p. 141 |
7.5.1 Hierarchical Roughness | p. 141 |
7.5.2 Stability of a Composite Interface and Hierarchical Roughness | p. 142 |
7.5.3 Hierarchical Roughness | p. 145 |
7.5.4 Results and Discussion | p. 148 |
7.6 Summary | p. 151 |
8 Cassie-Wenzel Wetting Regime Transition | p. 153 |
8.1 The Cassie-Wenzel Transition and the Contact Angle Hysteresis | p. 153 |
8.2 Experimental Study of the Cassie-Wenzel Transition | p. 157 |
8.3 Wetting as a Multiscale Phenomenon | p. 163 |
8.4 Investigation of Wetting as a Phase Transition | p. 165 |
8.5 Reversible Superhydrophobicity | p. 166 |
8.6 Summary | p. 166 |
9 Underwater Superhydrophobicity and Dynamic Effects | p. 169 |
9.1 Superhydrophobicity for the Liquid Flow | p. 169 |
9.2 Nanobubbles and Hydrophobic Interaction | p. 171 |
9.3 Bouncing Droplets | p. 172 |
9.4 A Droplet on a Hot Surface: the Leidenfrost Effect | p. 175 |
9.5 A Droplet on an Inclined Surface | p. 176 |
9.6 Summary | p. 177 |
Part III Biological and Biomimetic Surfaces | |
10 Lotus-Effect and Water-Repellent Surfaces in Nature | p. 181 |
10.1 Water-Repellent Plants | p. 181 |
10.2 Characterization of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Leaf Surfaces | p. 184 |
10.2.1 Experimental Techniques | p. 184 |
10.2.2 Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Leaves | p. 185 |
10.2.3 Contact Angle Measurements | p. 186 |
10.2.4 Surface Characterization Using an Optical Profiler | p. 187 |
10.2.5 Leaf Characterization with an AFM | p. 190 |
10.2.6 Adhesion Force and Friction | p. 192 |
10.2.7 Role of the Hierarchy | p. 196 |
10.3 Other Biological Superhydrophobic Surfaces | p. 197 |
10.4 Summary | p. 197 |
11 Artificial (Biomimetic) Superhydrophobic Surfaces | p. 199 |
11.1 How to Make a Superhydrophobic Surface | p. 201 |
11.1.1 Roughening to Create One-Level Structure | p. 202 |
11.1.2 Coating to Create One-Level Hydrophobic Structures | p. 204 |
11.1.3 Methods to Create Two-Level (Hierarchical) Superhydrophobic Structures | p. 205 |
11.2 Experimental Techniques | p. 206 |
11.2.1 Contact Angle, Surface Roughness, and Adhesion | p. 206 |
11.2.2 Measurement of Droplet Evaporation | p. 207 |
11.2.3 Measurement of Contact Angle Using ESEM | p. 207 |
11.3 Wetting of Micro- and Nanopatterned Surfaces | p. 208 |
11.3.1 Micro- and Nanopatterned Polymers | p. 208 |
11.3.2 Micropatterned Si Surfaces | p. 211 |
11.4 Self-cleaning | p. 227 |
11.5 Commercially Available Lotus-Effect Products | p. 228 |
11.6 Summary | p. 229 |
12 Gecko-Effect and Smart Adhesion | p. 231 |
12.1 Gecko | p. 231 |
12.2 Hierarchical Structure of the Attachment Pads | p. 233 |
12.3 Model of Hierarchical Attachment Pads | p. 236 |
12.4 Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures | p. 237 |
12.5 Self-cleaning | p. 239 |
12.6 Biomimetic Tape Made of Artificial Gecko Skin | p. 240 |
12.7 Summary | p. 241 |
13 Other Biomimetic Surfaces | p. 243 |
13.1 Hierarchical Organization in Biomaterials | p. 243 |
13.2 Moth-Eye-Effect | p. 244 |
13.3 Shark Skin | p. 246 |
13.4 Darkling Beetle | p. 246 |
13.5 Water Strider | p. 247 |
13.6 Spider Web | p. 247 |
13.7 Other Biomimetic Examples | p. 248 |
13.8 Summary | p. 249 |
14 Outlook | p. 251 |
References | p. 255 |
Index | p. 271 |