Ecosystem services

As human populations grow, so do the resource demands imposed on ecosystems, and the impacts of anthropogenic use and abuse are becoming ever more apparent. This has led to the development of the concept of ecosystem services, which describes the beneficial functions provided by ecosystems for human society. Ecosystem services are limited and hence threatened by over-exploitation, and there is an urgent imperative to evaluate trade-offs between immediate and long-term human needs and to take action to protect biodiversity, which is a key factor in delivering ecosystem services. To help inform decision-makers, economic value is increasingly being associated with many ecosystem services and is often based on the replacement with anthropogenic alternatives. The on-going challenges of maintaining sustainable ecosystems and prescribing economic value to nature is prompting multi-disciplinary shifts in how we recognise and manage the environment. This volume brings together emerging topics in environmental science, making an excellent source for policy makers and environmental consultants working in the field or related areas. Ecosystem Services also serves as a concise and referenced primer for advanced students and researchers in environmental science and management.

Author Notes

The series has been edited by Professors Hester and Harrison since it began in 1994.

Professor Roy Harrison OBE is listed by ISI Thomson Scientific (on ISI Web of Knowledge) as a Highly Cited Researcher in the Environmental Science/Ecology category. He has an h-index of 54 (i.e. 54 of his papers have received 54 or more citations in the literature). In 2004 he was appointed OBE for services to environmental science in the New Year Honours List. He was profiled by the Journal of Environmental Monitoring (Vol 5, pp 39N-41N, 2003). Professor Harrison's research interests lie in the field of environment and human health. His main specialism is in air pollution, from emissions through atmospheric chemical and physical transformations to exposure and effects on human health. Much of this work is designed to inform the development of policy.

Now an emeritus professor, Professor Ron Hester's current activities in chemistry are mainly as an editor and as an external examiner and assessor. He also retains appointments as external examiner and assessor / adviser on courses, individual promotions, and departmental / subject area evaluations both in the UK and abroad.

Alastair Fitter and Thomas Elmqvist and Roy Haines-Young and Marion Potschin and Andrea Rinaldo and Heikki Setälä and Susanna Stoll-Kleemann and Martin Zobel and John MurlisPiran C. L. White and Jasmin A. Godhold and Martin Solan and Jessica Wiegand and Alison R. HoltKen Norris and Simon G. Potts and Simon R. MortimerJohn ThornesErik Gómez-Baggethum and Rudolf de GrootLuke de Vial and Fiona Bowles and P. Julian DennisAdisa Azapagic

An Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Europe	p. 1
1 Introduction	p. 2
1.1 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Why this Topic Matters Now	p. 2
1.2 The Current Assessment	p. 3
2 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	p. 4
2.1 Ecosystem Services	p. 4
2.2 Relationships between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	p. 4
2.3 Land Use and Multiple Services	p. 7
3 European Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	p. 8
4 Managing Ecosystem Services in Europe	p. 16
4.1 How Ecosystems Respond to Change	p. 16
4.2 Threats to Biodiversity, and Consequences for Ecosystem Services in the European Union	p. 18
4.3 Methods of Valuing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	p. 19
4.4 Prioritising Ecosystem Services in Land Management: Weighing up Alternative Land Uses	p. 22
5 Conclusions	p. 23
References	p. 24
Ecosystem Services and Policy: A Review of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services and an Efficiency-Based Framework for Implementing the Ecosystem Approach	p. 29
1 Ecosystem Services and the Ecosystem Approach to Policy	p. 30
2 Existing Frameworks for Understanding Ecosystem Services	p. 31
3 Coastal Wetlands: Ecosystems on the Front Line of Global Change	p. 32
4 Defining Coastal Wetlands	p. 32
5 Ecosystem Services from Coastal Wetlands	p. 36
6 Management to Combat Environmental Change and Threats to Coastal Wetlands	p. 38
7 A New Conceptual Framework to Underpin the Ecosystem Approach	p. 41
8 Conclusions and Future Challenges	p. 44
Acknowledgements	p. 46
References	p. 46
Ecosystem Services and Food Production	p. 52
1 Introduction	p. 53
2 Ecosystem Services Important for Food Production	p. 54
2.1 A Conceptual Framework	p. 54
2.2 Ecosystem Services	p. 55
3 The Impact of Food Production on Ecosystems	p. 62
4 Conclusions	p. 64
References	p. 65
Atmospheric Services	p. 70
1 Introduction: The Atmosphere as Part of the Earth System	p. 71
2 Ecosystem Services versus Atmospheric Services	p. 73
3 The Atmosphere as both a Resource and a Hazard	p. 76
4 Who Owns the Atmosphere?	p. 77
5 The Valuation of Atmospheric Services	p. 81
5.1 An Estimate of the Total Economic Value of Atmospheric Services	p. 83
6 Atmospheric Services and Natural Capital	p. 85
6.1 The Air that We Breathe	p. 86
6.2 Protection from Extra-Terrestial Radiation Plasma and Meteors	p. 87
6.3 Natural Global Warming	p. 88
6.4 Cleansing Capacity and the Dispersion of Air Pollution	p. 88
6.5 Clouds and the Hydrological Cycle	p. 90
6.6 Direct Use of the Atmosphere for Ecosystems and Agriculture	p. 91
6.7 The Combustion of Fuel	p. 92
6.8 Air Transport, Communications and Sound	p. 93
6.9 Direct and Indirect Use of the Atmosphere for Energy and Power	p. 96
6.10 The Extraction of Atmospheric Gases	p. 97
6.11 Atmospheric Recreation and Climate Tourism	p. 98
6.12 Aesthetic, Spiritual and Sensual Properties	p. 99
7 Conclusions	p. 100
Acknowledgements	p. 101
References	p. 101
Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services: The Ecological Foundation of Human Society	p. 105
1 Introduction	p. 106
2 Societal Dependence on Ecosystems in Different Socio-Economic Contexts	p. 107
3 Understanding the Links between Ecosystems and Human Well-Being	p. 108
3.1 Ecosystem Structure and Functioning	p. 109
3.2 Ecosystem Functions	p. 111
3.3 Ecosystem Services	p. 111
3.4 Ecosystem Benefits and Human Weil-Being	p. 111
4 Accounting and Valuation of Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services	p. 112
4.1 Approaches Based on Human Preferences	p. 114
4.2 Approaches Based on Physical Costs	p. 115
5 Discussion and Conclusions	p. 116
5.1 The Controversy of Value Commensurability	p. 116
5.2 Why Use the Notion of Natural Capital?	p. 116
References	p. 117
Protecting Water Resources and Health by Protecting the Environment: A Case Study	p. 122
1 Introduction	p. 123
2 The Environmental Obligations on Water Utilities	p. 124
2.1 Discharge Consents have Tightened	p. 125
2.2 Review of Discharge Consents due to EU Directives	p. 125
2.3 Prohibition of 'Dumping' Sewage at Sea	p. 126
3 How Water Utilities meet their Environmental Obligations	p. 127
4 A More Sustainable Ecosystem-Based Approach for the Future	p. 127
5 The Wessex Water Experience with Catchment Management	p. 129
5.1 Identification of Catchment and Farms	p. 129
5.2 Actions Taken with the Fanner to Reduce Pollution	p. 129
5.3 Monitoring of Improvements	p. 133
6 Advantages of the Catchment Management Approach	p. 136
7 Other Examples of an Ecosystem Approach	p. 138
8 Conclusions	p. 138
References	p. 138
Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services	p. 140
1 Introduction	p. 141
2 Life Cycle Thinking and Life Cycle Assessment	p. 143
2.1 LCA Methodology: An Overview	p. 144
3 LCA as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services	p. 150
3.1 Life Cycle Impacts of Energy: The Electricity Sector	p. 150
3.2 Life Cycle Impacts of Transport	p. 153
3.3 Life Cycle Impacts of Industry: The Example of the Chemical Sector	p. 157
3.4 Life Cycle Impacts in the Food Sector	p. 159
Conclusions	p. 164
Appendix 1 CML 2 Method: Definition of Environmental Impact Categories	p. 164
References	p. 166
Subject Index	p. 169

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