Ecological sustainability : understanding complex issues

Complex systems is a new field of science studying how parts of a system give rise to the collective behaviors of the system, and how the system interacts with its environment. This book examines the complex systems involved in environmental sustainability, and examines the technologies involved to help mitigate human impacts, such as renewable energy, desalination, carbon capture, recycling, etc. It considers the relationships and balance between environmental engineering and science, economics, and human activity, with regard to sustainability.

Author Notes

Robert B. Northrop, majored in electrical engineering (EE) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), graduating with a bachelor's degree. At the University of Connecticut (UCONN), he received a master's degree in systems engineering. He entered a PhD program at UCONN in physiology, and received his PhD in 1964. Dr. Northrop's research interests have been broad, interdisciplinary, and centered on biomedical engineering and physiology. His current interest lies in complex systems. Dr. Northrop was on the electrical and computer engineering faculty at UCONN until his retirement in June 1997. As emeritus professor, he still teaches graduate courses in biomedical engineering.

Anne N. Connor, MA, is currently working as the director of community grants for Methodist Healthcare Ministries, a medical nonprofit organization in San Antonio, TX. Her educational background includes a bachelor's degree from Dartmouth College, where she received honor citations in chemistry and sociology. Her master's degree in communications is from the University of New Mexico at Albuquerque. She is the coauthor of Introduction to Molecular Biology, Genomics and Proteomics for Biomedical Engineers (Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, ISBN # 1420061194). She has received numerous awards for her work, most recently a humanitarian award from the San Antonio health care community.

Preface	p. xiii
Authors	p. xvii
1 Human Ecological Sustainability	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Is It Possible to Model Human Ecological Sustainability?	p. 7
1.3 Why Human Sustainability Is a Complex Issue	p. 14
1.4 Chapter Summary	p. 15
2 Review of Complexity and Complex Systems	p. 17
2.1 Introduction to Complexity	p. 17
2.1.1 When Is a System Complex?	p. 18
2.1.2 Examples	p. 19
2.1.3 Properties of CSs; Chaos and Tipping Points	p. 21
2.1.4 The Law of Unintended Consequences	p. 23
2.1.5 Complex Adaptive Systems	p. 28
2.2 Human Responses to Complexity	p. 29
2.2.1 Introduction	p. 29
2.2.2 The Social Action Rate Sensitivity Law	p. 30
2.2.3 Single-Cause Mentality	p. 31
2.2.4 The "Not in My Box" Mentality	p. 33
2.2.5 Complexity and Human Thinking	p. 34
2.3 Signal Flow Graphs and Mason's Rule	p. 35
2.3.1 Introduction	p. 35
2.3.2 Signal Flow Graphs	p. 37
2.3.3 Examples of Linear SFG Reduction	p. 38
2.3.4 Measures of SFG Complexity	p. 45
2.4 Modularity	p. 46
2.4.1 Introduction	p. 46
2.4.2 Measures of Modularity	p. 47
2.4.3 Examples of Modules in Sustainability Models	p. 48
2.4.3.1 Introduction	p. 48
2.4.3.2 Cod Fishery	p. 48
2.4.3.3 Aquifer	p. 53
2.4.3.4 Epidemic	p. 54
2.5 Chapter Summary	p. 56
3 Multidimensional Challenges to Human Sustainability	p. 57
3.1 Introduction	p. 57
3.2 The Challenge of Population Growth	p. 58
3.2.1 Introduction	p. 58
3.2.2 Effects of Overpopulation	p. 63
3.2.3 Mitigation Measures for Human Overpopulation	p. 66
3.2.4 Population Growth in Ecosystems	p. 68
3.3 Global Warming	p. 70
3.4 Water and Sustainability	p. 77
3.4.1 Introduction	p. 77
3.4.2 Drought and GW	p. 79
3.5 Bees, Pollination, and Food Crops	p. 84
3.5.1 Introduction	p. 84
3.5.2 CCD and Its Possible Causes	p. 86
3.5.3 The Impact of CCD on Our Food Supply	p. 88
3.6 Species Size Reduction Due to Habitat Warming: Another Challenge to Our Food Supply	p. 90
3.7 FF Energy and Sustainability	p. 91
3.7.1 Introduction	p. 91
3.7.2 Natural Gas	p. 92
3.7.3 Coal	p. 98
3.7.4 Oil	p. 99
3.7.5 Oil Shale	p. 104
3.7.6 Tar Sands	p. 107
3.7.7 Methane Hydrate	p. 109
3.7.8 US Oil Addiction	p. 112
3.7.9 Emissions	p. 114
3.8 Chapter Summary	p. 115
4 Mitigations of Human Impacts through Technology	p. 117
4.1 Introduction	p. 117
4.2 Biofuels	p. 118
4.2.1 Introduction	p. 118
4.2.2 Energy Densities of Fuels and Batteries	p. 119
4.2.3 Ethanol Fuel from Plant Starches	p. 119
4.2.4 Cellulosic Ethanol	p. 123
4.2.5 Methanol as Energy Source	p. 128
4.2.6 Biodiesel from Plant Oils	p. 132
4.2.7 Biofuel from Microalgae	p. 136
4.2.8 Hydrothermal Carbonization	p. 138
4.2.9 Solar Thermochemical Reactors	p. 139
4.3 Desalination	p. 140
4.3.1 Introduction	p. 140
4.3.2 Distillation	p. 141
4.3.3 Reverse Osmosis	p. 142
4.3.4 Humidification/Dehumidification	p. 142
4.3.5 Diffusion-Driven Desalination	p. 142
4.4 Carbon-Free Energy Sources	p. 143
4.4.1 Introduction to Wind Energy	p. 143
4.4.2 Energy in Wind	p. 143
4.4.3 Physics of WTs as Energy Sources	p. 144
4.4.4 Types of WTs	p. 145
4.4.5 Solar Energy	p. 151
4.4.5.1 Sun Flux on Earth	p. 151
4.4.5.2 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation	p. 154
4.4.5.3 Solar PV Electric Power Generation	p. 158
4.4.5.4 Solar Thermoelectric Power Generation	p. 162
4.4.5.5 Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems	p. 165
4.4.5.6 Solar Energy Storage	p. 166
4.4.5.7 Solar Energy and Sustainability	p. 167
4.4.6 Hydropower, Including Tides and Waves	p. 169
4.4.6.1 Introduction	p. 169
4.4.6.2 Ocean Wave Energy	p. 170
4.4.6.3 Tidal Energy	p. 177
4.4.6.4 Hydroelectric Power	p. 179
4.4.7 GT Energy and Heat Pumps	p. 180
4.4.8 Hydrogen Economy	p. 183
4.4.8.1 Sources of Hz	p. 183
4.4.8.2 Storing Hydrogen	p. 184
4.4.8.3 Distribution of H 2	p. 185
4.4.8.4 H 2 Uses	p. 185
4.4.8.5 Cost of Hydrogen	p. 187
4.4.8.6 Competition	p. 188
4.4.9 Interfacing Intermittent Renewable Sources to the Grid	p. 188
4.5 Carbon-Neutral Energy Sources	p. 190
4.5.1 Wood and Biomass	p. 190
4.5.2 Fuel Cells	p. 194
4.5.3 Biogenic Methane	p. 201
4.6 Energy Storage Means	p. 205
4.6.1 Introduction	p. 205
4.6.2 Pumped Hydro Storage	p. 205
4.6.3 Batteries	p. 206
4.6.4 Flow Batteries	p. 210
4.6.5 Compressed Air Energy Storage	p. 214
4.6.6 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors	p. 217
4.6.7 Flywheels	p. 219
4.6.8 Energy Storage by Mass PE	p. 223
4.7 Fusion Power	p. 223
4.7.1 Introduction	p. 223
4.7.2 "Hot" Fusion	p. 227
4.7.3 FRs and Sustainability	p. 229
4.7.4 Cold Fusion	p. 229
4.8 Nuclear Energy	p. 231
4.8.1 Nuclear Reactors	p. 231
4.8.1.1 Pebble-Bed Reactors	p. 233
4.8.1.2 Importance of Helium, a Nonrenewable Resource A	p. 236
4.8.1.3 Hazards of PBRs	p. 238
4.8.2 Hazards of Nuclear Power Generation	p. 238
4.8.2.1 Radioactivity and Ionizing Radiation	p. 238
4.8.2.2 Radioactivity Measurement	p. 239
4.8.2.3 Sustainability and Nuclear Power	p. 242
4.9 Carbon Capture and Storage	p. 245
4.9.1 Introduction	p. 245
4.9.2 Carbon Dioxide Capture from Point Sources	p. 253
4.9.3 CO 2 Storage and Recycling	p. 257
4.9.4 Cost of CCS	p. 259
4.9.5 CO 2 Capture from the Atmosphere	p. 261
4.10 Water Vapor	p. 262
4.10.1 Introduction	p. 262
4.10.2 WV as GHG	p. 265
4.11 Engineering Energy Efficiency	p. 268
4.12 Chapter Summary	p. 270
5 Sustainable Agriculture	p. 273
5.1 Introduction	p. 273
5.2 Animal Husbandry: Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations	p. 273
5.2.1 Bacteria from CAFOs	p. 274
5.2.2 Antibiotic Resistance in Factory-Farmed Meat	p. 274
5.2.3 Anthelmintic Resistance in Farm Animal Parasites	p. 277
5.2.4 Hormone Use in CAFOs and Endocrine Disruption	p. 277
5.2.4.1 Types of Hormones Used	p. 278
5.2.4.2 Transmission of Endocrine Disruptors from CAFOs to Humans	p. 279
5.2.4.3 Actions of Endocrine Disruptors	p. 281
5.3 Industrial Agriculture	p. 284
5.3.1 Pesticides and Human Health	p. 284
5.3.1.1 Pesticides as Carcinogens	p. 285
5.3.1.2 Pesticides as Immune Suppressors	p. 285
5.3.1.3 Pesticides as Endocrine Disruptors	p. 285
5.3.2 Nitrate Pollution	p. 286
5.3.2.1 Nitrates and Dead Zones	p. 286
5.3.2.2 Nitrates and Human Health	p. 288
5.3.3 Topsoil Loss and Declining Crop Yields	p. 288
5.4 Loss of Genetic Diversity	p. 290
5.4.1 Responses to Loss of Genetic Diversity	p. 291
5.5 Genetically Modified Organisms	p. 291
5.6 Sustainable Agriculture	p. 294
5.7 Can Sustainable Agriculture Feed the World?	p. 295
5.8 Competition for Cropland	p. 298
5.8.1 Biofuels and Food Prices	p. 298
5.8.2 Land Grabs and Food Availability	p. 299
5.9 Chapter Summary	p. 300
6 Unconventional Foods: Insects, Plankton, Fungi, and In Vitro Meat	p. 303
6.1 Introduction	p. 303
6.2 Nutritional Value of Insects	p. 304
6.3 Can Insects Be Farmed?	p. 306
6.4 Plankton as a Source of Human Food	p. 308
6.5 Fungi: Food and More	p. 312
6.5.1 Introduction	p. 312
6.5.2 Edible Fungi	p. 313
6.5.2.1 Introduction	p. 313
6.5.2.2 Quorn	p. 314
6.5.2.3 Edible Mushrooms	p. 315
6.5.2.4 Mushroom Growth Media	p. 317
6.5.2.5 Poisonous Fungi	p. 318
6.5.2.6 Harmful Fungi	p. 321
6.5.3 Antibiotic Fungi	p. 322
6.5.4 Fuel Synthesis by Fungi	p. 324
65.5 Mushroom Farms	p. 325
6.6 Food from Tissue Culture Using Animal Stem Cells	p. 325
6.7 Chapter Summary	p. 328
7 Complex Economic Systems and Sustainability	p. 331
7.1 Introduction to Economic Systems	p. 331
7.2 Basic Economics; Steady-State S&D	p. 336
7.2.1 Forrester's Views	p. 341
7.2.2 Dynamic Models of ESs	p. 343
7.2.3 What We Should Know about Economic Complexity	p. 346
7.2.4 Tipping Points in ESs; Recession, Inflation, and Stagflation	p. 349
7.3 Introduction to ABMs and Simulations of Economic and Other Complex Systems	p. 352
7.4 Economic Challenges to Human Sustainability	p. 354
7.5 Chapter Summary	p. 358
8 Application of Complex Systems Thinking to Solve Ecological Sustainability Problems	p. 361
8.1 Introduction	p. 361
8.2 Dörner's Approaches to Tackling Complex Problems	p. 362
8.3 Frederic Vester's "Paper Computer"	p. 364
8.4 Sensitivity Model of Vester	p. 367
8.5 Can We Learn From Our Mistakes?	p. 369
8.6 Chapter Summary	p. 370
9 What Will Happen to Us? FAQs on Sustainability	p. 373
9.1 Introduction	p. 373
9.2 Will Technology Sustain Us?	p. 374
9.2.1 Food	p. 374
9.2.2 Water	p. 377
9.2.3 Energy	p. 378
9.2.4 Electric Vehicles	p. 380
9.2.5 Anthropogenic GHGs	p. 381
9.3 FAQs Concerning Sustainability	p. 382
9.4 Chapter Summary	p. 387
Glossary	p. 389
Bibliography and Recommended Reading	p. 457
Index	p. 515

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