Zarook Shareefdeen and Brian Herner and Ajay SinghRodney L. AldrichSergio Revah and Juan M. Morgan-SagastumeRakesh Govind and Sandeep NarayanAjay Singh and Owen WardIndrani Datta and D. Grant AllenMarc A. Deshusses and David GabrielAjay Singh and Zarook Shareefdeen and Owen P. WardMark W. FitchMarc A. Deshusses and Zarook ShareefdeenRoger Cudmore and Peter GostomskiMadjid MohseniPierre Le Cloirec and Yves Andrès and Claire Gérente and Pascaline PréVladimir Popov and Vitaliy ZhukovTodd S. WebsterBart KraakmanFethiye Ozis and Arash Bina and Joseph S. Devinny

Part I Introduction and Basic Theory
1 Biotechnology for Air Pollution Control - an Overview	p. 3
1.1 Introduction	p. 3
1.2 Methods of Odor and VOC Control	p. 3
1.3 Biological Reactors	p. 4
1.3.1 Bioreactor Media	p. 4
1.3.2 Microbiology	p. 5
1.3.3 Types of Bioreactors	p. 7
1.4 Modeling and Design of Bioreactors	p. 8
1.4.1 Modeling of Bioreactors	p. 8
1.4.2 Design of Bioreactors	p. 9
1.5 Types of Contaminants	p. 10
1.6 Case Studies	p. 11
1.7 Conclusion	p. 12
References	p. 12
2 Environmental Laws and Regulations Related to Odor and Waste Gas Contaminants	p. 17
2.1 Introduction	p. 17
2.2 Control of VOCs	p. 18
2.3 Control of Odor-Causing Chemicals	p. 20
2.4 Brief Overview of Odor Restrictions Around the World	p. 21
2.4.1 The United States of America	p. 21
2.4.2 Japan	p. 24
2.4.3 China	p. 24
2.4.4 The United Kingdom	p. 24
2.4.5 Canada	p. 25
2.5 Conclusions	p. 26
References	p. 28
3 Methods of Odor and VOC Control	p. 29
3.1 VOCs and Odor Definition	p. 29
3.2 Methods for VOCs and Odor Control	p. 30
3.3 Physical-chemical Methods	p. 35
3.3.1 Dilution	p. 35
3.3.2 Condensation	p. 35
3.3.3 Membranes	p. 36
3.3.4 UV Oxidation	p. 36
3.3.5 Plasma	p. 37
3.3.6 Adsorption	p. 38
3.3.7 Combustion (Flares, Thermal and Catalytic Incinerators)	p. 38
3.3.8 Masking	p. 40
3.3.9 Caustic Scrubbing	p. 40
3.3.10 Regenerative Gas Scrubbing	p. 41
3.3.11 Chemical Precipitation	p. 42
3.3.12 Chlorine Oxidation	p. 42
3.3.13 Ozone Oxidation	p. 42
3.3.14 Potassium Permanganate Oxidation	p. 42
3.3.15 Catalytic Oxidation with Fe 3+ (LO-CAT Process)	p. 43
3.3.16 Hydrogen Peroxide Oxidation	p. 43
3.3.17 Oxidation with FeO	p. 43
3.4 Biological Methods	p. 43
3.4.1 Terminology	p. 45
3.4.2 Mechanisms	p. 47
3.4.3 The Biological Phase	p. 48
3.5 Types of Bioreactors	p. 53
3.5.1 Biofilter	p. 54
3.5.2 Biotrickling Filters	p. 55
3.5.3 Rotating Biological Contactors	p. 56
3.5.4 Bioscrubbers	p. 56
3.5.5 Membrane Bioreactors	p. 57
3.5.6 Suspended Cell Bioreactor	p. 58
3.6 Conclusions	p. 59
References	p. 60
4 Selection of Bioreactor Media for Odor Control	p. 65
4.1 Introduction	p. 65
4.2 Diffusive Versus Convective Media	p. 66
4.3 Naturally Bioactive Media	p. 68
4.4 Synthetic Media	p. 71
4.5 Randomly Packed Versus Structured Biomedia	p. 83
4.6 Biofilter Versus Biotrickling Filter	p. 85
4.7 Experimental Studies on Diffusive Biofilter Media	p. 86
4.7.1 Experimental Setup	p. 86
4.7.2 Analytical Procedure	p. 87
4.7.3 Results and Discussion	p. 88
4.8 Experimental Studies on Convective Biofilter Media	p. 90
4.9 Studies on Encapsulated Biomass and Membrane Biofilters	p. 92
4.10 Conclusions	p. 94
Appendix	p. 95
References	p. 99
5 Microbiology of Bioreactors for Waste Gas Treatment	p. 101
5.1 Introduction	p. 101
5.2 Microbial Communities Involved in Waste Gas Treatment	p. 102
5.3 The Nature of Microbial Biofilms	p. 104
5.4 Biodegradation of Air Pollutants	p. 106
5.4.1 Biokinetics	p. 106
5.4.2 Biodegradation of Organic Compounds	p. 107
5.4.3 Biodegradation of Inorganic Compounds	p. 108
5.5 Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation of Air Contaminants	p. 110
5.5.1 Bioavailability	p. 110
5.5.2 Nutritional	p. 111
5.5.3 Environmental	p. 113
5.6 Genetic Approaches for Improved Microorganisms	p. 114
5.7 Monitoring of Microbial Processes	p. 115
5.8 Conclusions	p. 116
References	p. 116
Part II Biological Reactor Technologies
6 Biofilter Technology	p. 125
6.1 Introduction	p. 125
6.2 Overall Process Description	p. 125
6.3 Biofiltration Terminology	p. 126
6.3.1 Empty Bed Residence Time	p. 127
6.3.2 Surface (or Volumetric) and Mass Loading Rate	p. 127
6.4 Mechanism of Operation	p. 128
6.4.1 Transfer and Partitioning of Contaminants to the Biofilm	p. 128
6.4.2 Biodegradation	p. 129
6.5 Characterizing Biofilter Performance	p. 129
6.5.1 Removal Efficiency	p. 129
6.5.2 Elimination Capacity	p. 130
6.5.3 Maximum Elimination Capacity	p. 130
6.6 Factors Affecting Biofilter Performance	p. 131
6.6.1 Packing Media	p. 131
6.6.2 Moisture Content	p. 131
6.6.3 Temperature	p. 132
6.6.4 Oxygen Content	p. 132
6.6.5 pH	p. 133
6.6.6 Nutrients	p. 133
6.6.7 Pressure Drop	p. 133
6.6.8 Medium Depth	p. 134
6.6.9 Waste Gas Pretreatment	p. 135
6.6.10 Maintenance	p. 135
6.7 Microbiology of Biofilters	p. 135
6.8 Advantages and Disadvantages	p. 136
6.9 Applications of Biofilters	p. 137
6.10 Conclusions	p. 139
References	p. 140
7 Biotrickling Filter Technology	p. 147
7.1 Introduction	p. 147
7.2 Biotrickling Filter Design and Operation	p. 150
7.3 Conversion of Chemical Scrubbers to Biotrickling Filters	p. 152
7.3.1 First Approach to the Conversion	p. 153
7.3.2 General Procedure to Convert Full-Scale Chemical Scrubbers	p. 155
7.3.3 H 2 S Treatment of Converted Chemical Scrubbers at OCSD	p. 161
7.4 Conclusions	p. 166
References	p. 166
8 Bioscrubber Technology	p. 169
8.1 Introduction	p. 169
8.2 Bioscrubbers	p. 170
8.3 Bioscrubber Design	p. 173
8.3.1 Mechanism for Odorous Gas Treatment by Bioscrubbers173
8.3.2 The Absorber	p. 174
8.3.3 The Bioreactor	p. 177
8.3.4 Variations in Bioscrubber Designs	p. 178
8.4 Bioprocess Control in Bioscrubbers	p. 180
8.4.1 Microbiology	p. 180
8.4.2 Nutrients	p. 182
8.4.3 Oxygen	p. 182
8.4.4 pH and Temperature	p. 183
8.4.5 Sludge Accumulation and Disposal	p. 183
8.5 Application of Bioscrubbers	p. 184
8.5.1 Waste Gases from Wastewater Treatment Plant	p. 184
8.5.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Gas Treatment	p. 187
8.5.3 Treatment of Flue Gases	p. 187
8.5.4 Treatment of Waste Gas from Fish Feed Factory	p. 188
8.5.5 Treatment of Waste Gas Containing VOCs	p. 188
8.6 Conclusion and Future Directions	p. 189
References	p. 190
9 Membrane Bioreactor Technology	p. 195
9.1 Introduction	p. 195
9.2 Membrane Bioreactor Design	p. 195
9.2.1 Mechanism	p. 197
9.2.2 Membranes	p. 198
9.2.3 Materials	p. 199
9.3 Reactor Configuration	p. 201
9.4 Operating Results	p. 201
9.4.1 Loading and Elimination Capacity	p. 201
9.4.2 Transient Loads and Aging	p. 205
9.4.3 Biofilm Thickness	p. 206
9.4.4 Heat	p. 206
9.5 Models of Membrane Biofiltration	p. 206
9.5.1 Mass Transfer	p. 206
9.5.2 Biodegradation	p. 208
9.5.3 Model Results	p. 209
9.6 Conclusions	p. 209
References	p. 209
10 Modeling of Biofilters and Biotrickling Filters for Odor and VOC Control Applications	p. 213
10.1 Introduction to Modeling	p. 213
10.1.1 General Model Concepts	p. 214
10.1.2 Importance of Modeling in Design and Operation	p. 215
10.2 A Review of Biofilter Models	p. 215
10.2.1 Steady-State Models	p. 215
10.2.2 Transient Models	p. 217
10.2.3 Critical Parameters	p. 218
10.3 Uses of Biofilter Models in Full-Scale Designs	p. 219
10.3.1 Wastewater Treatment Applications	p. 219
10.3.2 Rendering Applications	p. 221
10.4 A Review of Biotrickling Filter Models	p. 222
10.5 Conclusions and Future Work	p. 228
References	p. 229
Part III Biological Reactors - Applications
11 Biofilter Design and Operation for Odor Control - The New Zealand Experience	p. 235
11.1 Introduction	p. 235
11.2 Stream Characterization	p. 236
11.2.1 Composition	p. 236
11.2.2 Process Knowledge	p. 237
11.2.3 Temperature and Relative Humidity	p. 238
11.2.4 Particulates	p. 238
11.2.5 Odor Chemistry	p. 239
11.3 Pretreatment/Conditioning of Airstream	p. 239
11.3.1 Particulates	p. 240
11.3.2 Temperature	p. 240
11.3.3 Relative Humidity	p. 241
11.3.4 Bed Design	p. 242
11.3.5 Air Distribution	p. 242
11.3.6 Bed Media	p. 243
11.3.7 Specification of Soil and Bark	p. 243
11.4 Operation and Monitoring	p. 246
11.4.1 General Operation and Maintenance	p. 246
11.4.2 Pressure Drop	p. 247
11.4.3 Moisture	p. 247
11.4.4 Temperature	p. 248
11.4.5 pH	p. 248
11.4.6 Emission Monitoring	p. 248
11.4.7 Biofilter Maintenance	p. 248
11.4.8 Common Failures	p. 249
11.5 Conclusions	p. 250
References	p. 250
12 Biological Treatment of Waste Gases Containing Inorganic Compounds	p. 253
12.1 Introduction	p. 253
12.2 Common Inorganic Air Pollutants	p. 253
12.2.1 Ammonia	p. 254
12.2.2 Amines	p. 254
12.2.3 Nitrogen Oxides (NO x )	p. 254
12.2.4 Sulfur Oxides (SO x )	p. 255
12.3 Treatment Technologies for Inorganic Air Pollutants	p. 255
12.4 Biological Technologies for Inorganic Air Pollutants	p. 259
12.4.1 Biodegradation of Ammonia	p. 259
12.4.2 Biodegradation of NO x	p. 261
12.5 Biofiltration	p. 262
12.5.1 Biofiltration of Ammonia	p. 262
12.5.2 Biofiltration of Mixtures of Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide	p. 265
12.5.3 Biofiltration of Nitrogen Oxides	p. 265
12.6 Biotrickling Filtration	p. 267
12.7 Bioscrubbing	p. 269
12.8 Photobiodegradation	p. 269
12.9 Other Biological Processes	p. 270
12.9.1 Membrane Bioreactors	p. 271
12.9.2 Fluidized/Spouted Bed Bioreactors	p. 271
12.9.3 Phytoremediation	p. 272
12.10 Conclusions and Further Research Needs	p. 272
References	p. 274
13 Biological Treatment of Waste Gases Containing Volatile Organic Compounds	p. 281
13.1 Introduction	p. 281
13.2 Biodegradation of Volatile Organic Compounds	p. 282
13.2.1 Microbial Growth	p. 282
13.2.2 Microorganisms and Pollutants	p. 284
13.3 Applications of Biological Processes	p. 286
13.3.1 General Operating Conditions	p. 286
13.3.2 Biofilters	p. 287
13.3.3 Biotrickling Filters	p. 292
13.3.4 Bioscrubbers	p. 292
13.4 By-Products Generated During Biological Treatments of VOCs	p. 296
13.4.1 Overview of Wastes and By-Products Generated	p. 296
13.4.2 Energy Recovery	p. 297
13.5 Conclusions	p. 300
References	p. 300
Part IV Biological Reactors - Case Studies
14 Odor Removal in Industrial Facilities	p. 305
14.1 Introduction	p. 305
14.2 Substrate Composition and Concentration	p. 306
14.3 Biomass Control	p. 307
14.4 Compliance	p. 308
14.5 Modern Trends in Biofilter Development	p. 309
14.6 Case Studies	p. 315
14.6.1 Odorous VOC: Formaldehyde Removal	p. 315
14.6.2 High-Performance/Enhanced Removal of Sulfur Compounds	p. 317
14.7 Conclusions	p. 324
References	p. 325
15 Odor Removal in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants - Case Studies	p. 327
15.1 Introduction	p. 327
15.2 An Odor Control Biofilter Located Within a Sewer Manhole Cover	p. 327
15.2.1 Design	p. 328
15.2.2 Operation	p. 329
15.2.3 Performance	p. 329
15.3 Multiple Biofilter Application Treating Odors from a Headworks Operation	p. 329
15.3.1 Design	p. 331
15.3.2 Operation and Performance	p. 332
15.4 Multiple Biofilter Application (High Flow) at a Wastewater Pumping Station	p. 332
15.4.1 Design and Operation	p. 332
15.4.2 Performance	p. 332
15.5 A Single Biofilter Application (Low Flow) at a Wastewater Pumping Station	p. 334
15.5.1 Design and Operation	p. 335
15.5.2 Performance	p. 336
15.6 Single Biofilter at a Wastewater Pumping Station Operated Under Varying Air Temperatures	p. 338
15.6.1 Design and Operation	p. 338
15.6.2 Performance	p. 339
15.7 Biofiltration of Odors at a Biosolids Handling Facility	p. 341
15.7.1 Design and Operation	p. 342
15.7.2 Performance	p. 344
15.8 An Intermittent Water Addition Biotrickling Filter Reactor	p. 345
15.8.1 Design	p. 345
15.8.2 Operation	p. 346
15.8.3 Performance	p. 348
15.9 Long-Term Operation of a Biotrickling Filter Reactor	p. 350
15.9.1 Design	p. 350
15.9.2 Operation and Performance	p. 351
15.10 Conclusions	p. 353
References	p. 353
16 Biotrickling and Bioscrubber Applications to Control Odor and Air Pollutants: Developments, Implementation Issues and Case Studies	p. 355
16.1 Introduction	p. 355
16.2 Definitions, Advantages and Limitations	p. 356
16.2.1 Definitions	p. 356
16.2.2 Advantages of Biotrickling Filters and Bioscrubbers versus Biofilters	p. 356
16.2.3 Disadvantage	p. 357
16.3 Recent Developments	p. 357
16.4 Robustness	p. 362
16.5 Missing Gaps for Future Developments	p. 363
16.6 Case Studies	p. 364
16.6.1 Odor Removal from Waste Gas Emissions at an Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Plant with a Purspring Bioreactor	p. 364
16.6.2 H 2 S Removal from Stripped Groundwater with a Purspring Bioreactor	p. 368
16.6.3 V-Spring Bioreactor System Treating CS 2 Emissions at a Fungicide Manufacturing Plant	p. 371
16.7 Conclusions	p. 373
References	p. 375
Part V Future of Biotechnology
17 Future Prospects of Biotechnology for Odor Control	p. 383
17.1 The Growing Need for Odor Control	p. 383
17.2 Biotechnology is an Important Alternative	p. 384
17.3 Possible Obstacles	p. 386
17.4 Current Successes	p. 387
17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment Plant Odor Control	p. 388
17.4.2 Swine Industry	p. 390
17.5 Technology Developments	p. 391
17.5.1 Rational Design	p. 391
17.5.2 Reliability	p. 391
17.5.3 Inert Packing	p. 393
17.5.4 Biomass Control	p. 394
17.5.5 Inoculation	p. 395
17.5.6 Standards	p. 396
17.5.7 Sensing and Automation	p. 396
17.5.8 Increasing Size	p. 397
17.5.9 Wastewater Will Lead the Way	p. 397
17.5.10 Application to New Effluents	p. 398
17.5.11 Development of Green Manufacturing-Biosystem Combinations	p. 398
17.6 Conclusions	p. 399
References	p. 399
Subject Index	p. 403