The atmosphere : an introduction to meteorology

Using everyday, easy-to-grasp examples to reinforce basic concepts, this highly regarded handbook remains the standard introduction to meteorology and the atmosphere - components, problems, and applications. Includes the most up-to-date coverage of topics such as: ozone depletion; the ultraviolet index; temperature; dew point temperature and orographic effects; wildfires and weather; thunderstorms and lightning; the record-breaking Florida hurricane season; effects of air pollution, and more. Incorporates top-quality visuals, including new satellite images and illustrations by the award-winning Dennis Tasa, to demonstrate the highly visual nature of meteorology. Uses a largely non-technical writing style to help readers grasp important concepts. For those interested in learning more about meteorology.

Preface	p. x
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Atmosphere	p. 1
Weather and Climate	p. 2
Atmospheric Hazards: Assault by the Elements	p. 4
The Atmosphere: A Part of the Earth System	p. 6
Earth's Four Spheres	p. 6
Earth's Spheres Interact	p. 7
The Carbon Cycle	p. 8
Composition of the Atmosphere	p. 9
Major Components	p. 9
Carbon Dioxide	p. 9
Variable Components	p. 10
Ozone Depletion--A Global Issue	p. 12
The Ozone Hole	p. 12
Effects of Ozone Depletion	p. 13
Montreal Protocol	p. 14
Probing the Atmosphere	p. 14
Height and Structure of the Atmosphere	p. 16
Pressure Changes	p. 17
Temperature Changes	p. 17
Vertical Variations in Composition	p. 21
The Ionosphere	p. 21
Chapter 2 Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	p. 27
Earth-Sun Relationships	p. 28
Earth's Motions	p. 28
The Seasons	p. 28
Earth's Orientation	p. 30
Solstices and Equinoxes	p. 31
Energy, Heat, and Temperature	p. 35
Types of Energy	p. 35
Heat Energy Versus Temperature	p. 35
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer	p. 36
Conduction	p. 36
Convection	p. 36
Radiation	p. 37
Laws of Radiation	p. 38
The Fate of Incoming Solar Radiation	p. 39
Reflection and Scattering	p. 40
Absorption by Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	p. 45
Radiation Emitted by Earth	p. 45
Heating the Atmosphere	p. 45
The "Greenhouse Effect"	p. 47
Role of Clouds in Heating Earth	p. 48
Heat Budget	p. 48
Latitudinal Heat Balance	p. 50
Chapter 3 Temperature	p. 56
For the Record: Air Temperature Data	p. 57
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature	p. 59
Land and Water	p. 60
Ocean Currents	p. 63
Altitude	p. 64
Geographic Position	p. 66
Cloud Cover and Albedo	p. 67
World Distribution of Temperatures	p. 68
Cycles of Air Temperature	p. 70
Daily Temperature Variations	p. 70
Magnitude of Daily Temperature Changes	p. 72
Annual Temperature Variations	p. 73
Temperature Measurement	p. 73
Mechanical Thermometers	p. 73
Electrical Thermometers	p. 76
Instrument Shelters	p. 77
Temperature Scales	p. 77
Applications of Temperature Data	p. 78
Heating Degree-Days	p. 79
Cooling Degree-Days	p. 80
Growing Degree-Days	p. 80
Temperature and Comfort	p. 81
Chapter 4 Moisture and Atmospheric Stability	p. 86
Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere	p. 87
Water's Changes of State	p. 88
Water in the Atmosphere	p. 90
Vapor Pressure and Saturation	p. 90
Relative Humidity	p. 92
How Relative Humidity Changes	p. 94
Natural Change in Relative Humidity	p. 96
Dew Point Temperature	p. 96
Humidity Measurement	p. 98
Adiabatic Temperature Changes	p. 99
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation	p. 101
Lifting Processes	p. 103
Orographic Lifting	p. 103
Frontal Wedging	p. 105
Convergence	p. 105
Localized Convective Lifting	p. 106
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability	p. 107
Types of Stability	p. 108
Stability and Daily Weather	p. 112
How Stability Changes	p. 112
Temperature Changes and Stability	p. 113
Vertical Air Movement and Stability	p. 113
Chapter 5 Forms of Condensation and Precipitation	p. 118
Condensation	p. 119
Condensation Aloft and Cloud Formation	p. 120
Clouds	p. 120
Cloud Classification	p. 120
Cloud Descriptions	p. 120
Fog	p. 128
Fogs Formed by Cooling	p. 128
Fogs Formed by Evaporation	p. 129
Dew and Frost	p. 130
How Precipitation Forms	p. 130
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process	p. 131
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision-Coalescence Process	p. 133
Forms of Precipitation	p. 136
Rain	p. 137
Snow	p. 137
Sleet and Glaze	p. 138
Hail	p. 139
Rime	p. 141
Precipitation Measurement	p. 142
Standard Instruments	p. 143
Measuring Snowfall	p. 144
Measurement Errors	p. 144
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar	p. 146
Intentional Weather Modification	p. 146
Cloud Seeding	p. 147
Fog and Cloud Dispersal	p. 148
Hail Suppression	p. 148
Frost Prevention	p. 150
Inadvertent Weather Modification: Urban-Induced Precipitation	p. 150
Chapter 6 Air Pressure and Winds	p. 156
Understanding Air Pressure	p. 157
Measuring Air Pressure	p. 158
Factors Affecting Air Pressure	p. 161
Pressure Changes With Altitude	p. 162
Factors Affecting Wind	p. 163
Pressure-Gradient Force	p. 164
Coriolis Force	p. 168
Friction	p. 170
Winds Aloft and Geostrophic Flow	p. 171
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind	p. 173
Surface Winds	p. 175
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion	p. 175
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones	p. 176
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow	p. 177
Wind Measurement	p. 178
Chapter 7 Circulation of the Atmosphere	p. 184
Scales of Atmospheric Motion	p. 185
Large- and Small-Scale Circulation	p. 185
Structure of Wind Patterns	p. 187
Local Winds	p. 187
Land and Sea Breezes	p. 187
Mountain and Valley Breezes	p. 189
Chinook (Foehn) Winds	p. 190
Katabatic (Fall) Winds	p. 190
Country Breeze	p. 190
Global Circulation	p. 192
Single-Cell Circulation Model	p. 192
Three-Cell Circulation Model	p. 192
Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds	p. 194
Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts	p. 194
Semipermanent Pressure Systems: The Real World	p. 195
Monsoons	p. 197
The Asian Monsoon	p. 197
The North American Monsoon	p. 199
The Westerlies	p. 199
Why Westerlies?	p. 200
Jet Streams	p. 200
Origin of the Midlatitude Jet Stream	p. 201
Subtropical Jet Stream	p. 202
Waves in the Westerlies	p. 202
Westerlies and Earth's Heat Budget	p. 203
Global Winds and Ocean Currents	p. 205
The Importance of Ocean Currents	p. 206
Ocean Currents and Upwelling	p. 207
El Nino and La Nina	p. 207
Global Distribution of Precipitation	p. 211
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation	p. 211
Distribution of Precipitation Over the Continents	p. 213
Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent	p. 215
Chapter 8 Air Masses	p. 220
What Is an Air Mass?	p. 221
Source Regions	p. 222
Classifying Air Masses	p. 223
Air-Mass Modification	p. 224
Properties of North American Air Masses	p. 224
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Aretic (cA) Air Masses	p. 225
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air Over Warm Water	p. 227
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses	p. 229
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses	p. 231
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses	p. 233
Chapter 9 Weather Patterns	p. 236
Polar-Front Theory	p. 238
Fronts	p. 239
Warm Fronts	p. 240
Cold Fronts	p. 242
Stationary Fronts	p. 243
Occluded Fronts	p. 243
Drylines	p. 243
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone	p. 245
Formation: The Clash of Two Air Masses	p. 245
Development of Cyclonic Flow	p. 245
Occlusion: The Beginning of the End	p. 247
Idealized Weather of a Midlatitude Cyclone	p. 248
Cyclogenesis	p. 250
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation	p. 250
Divergence and Convergence Aloft	p. 252
Traveling Cyclones	p. 254
Patterns of Movement	p. 255
Anticyclonic Weather and Blocking Highs	p. 256
Case Study of a Midlatitude Cyclone	p. 257
Violent Spring Weather	p. 257
Weather in Peoria	p. 264
Chapter 10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes	p. 268
What's in a Name?	p. 269
Thunderstorms	p. 270
Air-Mass Thunderstorms	p. 271
Stages of Development	p. 271
Occurrence	p. 273
Severe Thunderstorms	p. 273
Supercell Thunderstorms	p. 273
Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Complexes	p. 276
Lightning and Thunder	p. 280
What Causes Lightning?	p. 280
The Lightning Stroke	p. 281
Thunder	p. 282
Tornadoes	p. 284
The Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes	p. 286
Tornado Development	p. 286
Tornado Climatology	p. 286
Profile of a Tornado	p. 288
Tornado Destruction	p. 289
Tornado Forecasting	p. 290
Tornado Watches and Warnings	p. 291
Doppler Radar	p. 292
Chapter 11 Hurricanes	p. 299
Profile of a Hurricane	p. 301
Hurricane Formation and Decay	p. 302
Hurricane Formation	p. 303
Hurricane Decay	p. 307
Hurricane Destruction	p. 307
Storm Surge	p. 307
Wind Damage	p. 310
Inland Flooding	p. 310
Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes	p. 314
The Role of Satellites	p. 314
Aircraft Reconnaissance	p. 315
Radar and Data Buoys	p. 315
Hurricane Watches and Warnings	p. 316
Chapter 12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting	p. 319
The Weather Business: A Brief Overview	p. 320
Weather Analysis	p. 321
Gathering Data	p. 322
Weather Maps: Pictures of the Atmosphere	p. 322
Weather Forecasting	p. 324
Synoptic Weather Forecasting	p. 324
Numerical Weather Prediction	p. 328
Statistical Methods	p. 329
Techniques Used in Short-Range Forecasting	p. 329
Long-Range Forecasts	p. 330
Forecast Accuracy	p. 332
Tools in Weather Forecasting	p. 335
Satellites in Weather Forecasting	p. 336
What Weather Satellites Reveal	p. 337
Measurement by Satellite	p. 338
Weather Forecasting and Upper-Level Flow	p. 339
The Winter of 1977	p. 341
Chapter 13 Air Pollution	p. 347
A Brief Historical Perspective	p. 348
Air Pollution: Not a New Problem	p. 348
Some Historic Episodes	p. 350
Sources and Types of Air Pollution	p. 350
Primary Pollutants	p. 351
Secondary Pollutants	p. 354
Trends in Air Quality	p. 355
Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution	p. 359
Wind as a Factor	p. 359
The Role of Atmospheric Stability	p. 359
Acid Precipitation	p. 362
Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation	p. 362
Effects of Acid Precipitation	p. 363
Chapter 14 The Changing Climate	p. 367
The Climate System	p. 368
Is Our Climate Changing?	p. 369
How Do We Detect Climate Change?	p. 369
Evidence from Sea-Floor Sediment	p. 369
Evidence from Oxygen Isotope Analysis	p. 370
Evidence from Other Sources	p. 370
Natural Causes of Climate Change	p. 372
Plate Tectonics and Climate Change	p. 372
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change	p. 373
Orbital Variations	p. 376
Solar Variability and Climate	p. 378
Human Impact on Global Climate	p. 379
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change	p. 380
How Do Aerosols Influence Climate?	p. 382
Climate-Feedback Mechanisms	p. 384
Some Possible Consequences of a Greenhouse Warming	p. 385
Water Resources and Agriculture	p. 385
Sea-Level Rise	p. 385
New Weather Patterns	p. 386
Chapter 15 World Climates	p. 390
Climate Classification	p. 391
Climate Controls: A Summary	p. 392
Latitude	p. 396
Land and Water	p. 397
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds	p. 397
Mountains and Highlands	p. 397
Ocean Currents	p. 397
Pressure and Wind Systems	p. 397
World Climates--An Overview	p. 398
The Wet Tropics (Af, Am)	p. 398
Temperature Characteristics	p. 399
Precipitation Characteristics	p. 401
Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw)	p. 403
Temperature Characteristics	p. 404
Precipitation Characteristics	p. 404
The Monsoon	p. 404
The Cw Variant	p. 406
The Dry Climates (B)	p. 406
What Is Meant by "Dry"?	p. 406
Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh)	p. 408
West Coast Subtropical Deserts	p. 411
Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk)	p. 412
Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C)	p. 413
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)	p. 413
The Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)	p. 414
The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb)	p. 415
Humid Continental Climates with Severe Winters (D)	p. 416
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa)	p. 416
The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd)	p. 421
The Polar Climates (E)	p. 422
The Tundra Climate (ET)	p. 422
The Ice Cap Climate (EF)	p. 424
Highland Climates	p. 425
Chapter 16 Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere	p. 413
Nature of Light	p. 432
Reflection	p. 432
Refraction	p. 433
Mirages	p. 435
Rainbows	p. 437
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars	p. 440
The Glory	p. 442
The Corona	p. 443
Appendix A Metric Units	p. 447
Appendix B Explanation ad Decoding of the Daily Weather Map	p. 450
Appendix C Relative Humidity and Dew Point Tables	p. 457
Appendix D Correcting Mercurial Barometer Readings	p. 459
Appendix E Laws Relating to Gases	p. 464
Appendix F Climate Data	p. 466
Glossary	p. 471
Index	p. 481

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