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Summary
Summary
Machine tools are the main production factor for many industrial applications in many important sectors. Recent developments in new motion devices and numerical control have lead to considerable technological improvements in machine tools. The use of five-axis machining centers has also spread, resulting in reductions in set-up and lead times. As a consequence, feed rates, cutting speed and chip section increased, whilst accuracy and precision have improved as well. Additionally, new cutting tools have been developed, combining tough substrates, optimal geometries and wear resistant coatings. "Machine Tools for High Performance Machining" describes in depth several aspects of machine structures, machine elements and control, and application. The basics, models and functions of each aspect are explained by experts from both academia and industry. Postgraduates, researchers and end users will all find this book an essential reference.
Author Notes
L. N. López de Lacalle is a full professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao, Spain.
A. Lamikiz also works in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao, Spain.
Table of Contents
Contributors | p. xix |
1 Machine Tools for Removal Processes: A General View | p. 1 |
1.1 Basic Definitions and History | p. 1 |
1.1.1 Historical Remarks | p. 2 |
1.2 The Functions and Requirements of a Machine Tool | p. 8 |
1.2.1 User and Technological Requirements | p. 9 |
1.3 The Basic Mechanism | p. 13 |
1.4 The Machine Structure | p. 16 |
1.4.1 Machine Foundations | p. 18 |
1.4.2 Structural Components Materials | p. 18 |
1.4.3 Structural Analysis | p. 19 |
1.4.4 Modularity | p. 22 |
1.5 Guideways | p. 23 |
1.5.1 Guides with Limit Lubrication | p. 25 |
1.5.2 Rolling Guides | p. 25 |
1.5.3 Hydrostatic Guides | p. 26 |
1.6 The Definition of the Main Motion | p. 27 |
1.7 The Definition of the Drive Trains | p. 29 |
1.8 The CNC Implementation | p. 30 |
1.9 Machine Verification | p. 33 |
1.10 Typical Machines for Several Applications and Sectors | p. 34 |
1.10.1 A Machine for Big Structural Turbine Parts | p. 34 |
1.10.2 A Horizontal Milling Centre for Automotive Components | p. 35 |
1.10.3 A Milling Centre for Moulds | p. 37 |
1.10.4 A Milling Machine for Big Dies and Moulds | p. 37 |
1.10.5 Conventional Machines for Auxiliary Operations | p. 38 |
1.10.6 CNC Milling Machines for General Production | p. 40 |
1.10.7 A Heavy-duty Lathe | p. 40 |
1.10.8 A Mitre Band Saw | p. 41 |
1.10.9 Transfer Machines | p. 42 |
1.10.10 A Milling and Boring Centre | p. 43 |
1.11 The Book Organisation | p. 43 |
References | p. 44 |
2 New Concepts for Structural Components | p. 47 |
2.1 Introduction and Definitions | p. 47 |
2.2 Optimised Machine Structures | p. 49 |
2.2.1 A Comparison Among Different Machine Configurations | p. 50 |
2.2.2 Structural Components in Machine Structures | p. 53 |
2.2.3 Robust Rams and Columns | p. 54 |
2.3 Structural Optimisation in Machines | p. 56 |
2.3.1 Mechanical Requirements for Eco-efficient Machines | p. 56 |
2.3.2 FEM Modelling | p. 58 |
2.3.3 Topological Optimisation | p. 60 |
2.4 Structural Materials | p. 61 |
2.4.1 Involved Parameters | p. 61 |
2.4.2 Conventional Materials for Structural Components | p. 62 |
2.4.3 Innovative Materials for Structural Components | p. 63 |
2.4.4 Costs of Design Materials and Structures | p. 65 |
2.4.5 The Influence of Innovative Materials on Productivity | p. 65 |
2.5 Active Damping Devices | p. 66 |
2.5.1 The Implementation of ADDs to Machine Structures | p. 67 |
2.6 The Influence of New Structural Concepts on Productivity | p. 68 |
2.6.1 The Influence of New Design Concepts for Structural Components | p. 68 |
2.6.2 The Influence of ADDs on Productivity | p. 71 |
2.7 Future Trends in Structural Components for Machines | p. 72 |
References | p. 72 |
3 Machine Tool Spindles | p. 75 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 75 |
3.2 Types of Spindles | p. 78 |
3.2.1 Belt-driven Spindles | p. 78 |
3.2.2 Gear-driven Spindles | p. 79 |
3.2.3 Direct Drive Spindles | p. 79 |
3.2.4 Integrated (Built-in) Drive Spindles | p. 80 |
3.3 Spindle Configurations | p. 80 |
3.3.1 Common Configurations: Vertical and Horizontal Spindles | p. 81 |
3.3.2 Machines with Rotary Headstocks | p. 81 |
3.3.3 A Main Spindle with an Auxiliary Spindle | p. 82 |
3.3.4 Twin Spindles and Multi-spindles | p. 83 |
3.3.5 Automatic Head Exchange | p. 83 |
3.4 Basic Elements of the Spindle | p. 84 |
3.4.1 Motors | p. 85 |
3.4.2 Bearings | p. 87 |
3.4.3 The Toolholder | p. 95 |
3.4.4 The Drawbar | p. 102 |
3.4.5 The Shaft | p. 103 |
3.4.6 The Sensors | p. 103 |
3.4.7 The Housing | p. 104 |
3.5 Spindle Properties and Performance | p. 105 |
3.5.1 Spindle Power and Torque versus Spindle Speed Curves | p. 105 |
3.5.2 The Stiffness | p. 106 |
3.5.3 Dynamic Behaviour and Vibrations | p. 108 |
3.5.4 The Thermal Behaviour | p. 115 |
3.5.5 Spindles in Use: Other Problems | p. 119 |
3.6 Spindle Selection | p. 120 |
3.6.1 Conventional Machining or HSM | p. 121 |
3.6.2 Tool Selection | p. 122 |
3.6.3 The Workpiece Material | p. 123 |
3.6.4 Power and Spindle Speed Requirements | p. 123 |
3.7 Brief Conclusions | p. 125 |
References | p. 126 |
4 New Developments in Drives and Tables | p. 129 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 129 |
4.1.1 Precision and Dynamics | p. 130 |
4.2 Linear Drives by Ball Screws | p. 132 |
4.2.1 Dimensioning | p. 132 |
4.2.2 The Rotary Screw | p. 138 |
4.2.3 Other Configurations | p. 138 |
4.3 Linear Drives by Rack and Pinion | p. 139 |
4.3.1 The Elimination of the Gap | p. 139 |
4.3.2 Dimensioning | p. 141 |
4.3.3 Dynamic Models of the Drives | p. 142 |
4.4 Linear Drives by Linear Motors | p. 142 |
4.4.1 Mounting | p. 144 |
4.4.2 Configurations | p. 144 |
4.5 Rotary Drives | p. 145 |
4.5.1 Mechanical Transmissions | p. 145 |
4.5.2 Direct Rotary Drives | p. 146 |
4.6 Guidance Systems | p. 147 |
4.6.1 Friction Guides | p. 147 |
4.6.2 Rolling Guides | p. 150 |
4.6.3 Hydrostatic Guides | p. 152 |
4.6.4 Aerostatic Guides | p. 156 |
4.7 The Present and the Future | p. 157 |
4.7.1 Rolling Guides with Integrated Functions | p. 157 |
4.7.2 The Hydrostatic Shoe on Guide Rails | p. 157 |
4.7.3 Guiding and Actuation through Magnetic Levitation | p. 158 |
References | p. 158 |
5 Advanced Controls for New Machining Processes | p. 159 |
5.1 Introduction and History | p. 159 |
5.1.1 Computer Numerical Control and Direct Numerical Control | p. 160 |
5.1.2 Networked Control and Supervision | p. 163 |
5.2 New Machining Processes | p. 164 |
5.2.1 High Speed Machining | p. 165 |
5.2.2 Micromechanical Machining | p. 166 |
5.2.3 An Introduction to Nanomachining Processes | p. 167 |
5.3 Today's CNCs: Machine Level Control | p. 168 |
5.3.1 The Interpolation Process | p. 169 |
5.3.2 The Position Control Servomechanism | p. 174 |
5.4 Advanced CNCs: Multi-level Hierarchical Control | p. 179 |
5.4.1 The Control of the Machining Process | p. 181 |
5.4.2 The Supervisory Control of the Machining Process: Merit Variables | p. 183 |
5.5 The Sensory System for Machining Processes | p. 185 |
5.5.1 Correct Monitoring Conditions | p. 188 |
5.5.2 Machining Characteristics and their Measurement | p. 189 |
5.5.3 Two Case Studies | p. 190 |
5.6 Open-Architecture CNC Systems | p. 194 |
5.6.1 Networked Control and Supervision | p. 195 |
5.7 Programming Support Systems: Manual Programming | p. 202 |
5.7.1 Computer Assisted Programming | p. 207 |
5.7.2 Graphical Simulation | p. 209 |
5.8 Current CNC Architectures | p. 210 |
5.8.1 Systems Based on Multi-microprocessor Architecture | p. 211 |
5.8.2 The PC Front-end | p. 211 |
5.8.3 The Motion Control Card with a PC | p. 212 |
5.8.4 The Software-based Solution | p. 212 |
5.8.5 Fully Digital Architectures: Towards the Intelligent Machine Tool | p. 214 |
References | p. 216 |
6 Machine Tool Performance and Precision | p. 219 |
6.1 Introduction and Definitions | p. 220 |
6.1.1 An Introduction to Precision Machining | p. 220 |
6.1.2 Basic Definitions: Accuracy, Repeatability and Resolution | p. 223 |
6.1.3 Historical Remarks and the State of the Art | p. 224 |
6.2 Basic Design Principles and an Error Budget | p. 225 |
6.2.1 Sources of Errors in Machine Tools | p. 226 |
6.2.2 Error Budget Estimation | p. 227 |
6.2.3 Basic Principles for Precision Machine Design | p. 231 |
6.2.4 Error Propagation | p. 237 |
6.2.5 Thermal Errors | p. 240 |
6.2.6 CNC Interpolation Errors | p. 244 |
6.3 Errors Originated by the Machining Process | p. 245 |
6.3.1 Errors Originated in the CNC Program Generation | p. 245 |
6.3.2 Errors Originated by the Tool Wear | p. 247 |
6.3.3 Tool Deflection Error | p. 248 |
6.4 Verification Procedures | p. 251 |
6.4.1 Standard Procedures for Machine Tool Validation | p. 252 |
6.4.2 Test Parts | p. 257 |
6.5 A Brief Conclusion | p. 258 |
References | p. 259 |
7 New Developments in Lathes and Turning Centres | p. 261 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 261 |
7.2 Machine Configuration | p. 262 |
7.2.1 High Production Lathes | p. 262 |
7.2.2 Turning Centres: Multi-tasking Machines | p. 265 |
7.3 The Latest Technologies Applied to Lathes and Turning Centres | p. 270 |
7.3.1 General Configuration Technologies | p. 270 |
7.3.2 Complementary Technologies to Improve Machine Performance | p. 271 |
7.4 Special Machining Processes Applied in Multi-tasking Machines | p. 272 |
7.4.1 The Laser Application | p. 272 |
7.4.2 Roller Burnishing and Deep Rolling | p. 273 |
7.4.3 Ultrasonic Assisted Turning | p. 275 |
7.4.4 Cryogenic Gas Assisted Turning | p. 276 |
7.4.5 High-pressure Coolant Assisted Machining | p. 277 |
References | p. 278 |
8 High Performance Grinding Machines | p. 279 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 279 |
8.2 The Machine Configuration | p. 280 |
8.2.1 The Machine Architecture | p. 281 |
8.2.2 Materials Applied in Structural Parts | p. 286 |
8.2.3 Main Components | p. 288 |
8.2.4 Wheel Dressing Systems | p. 291 |
8.2.5 Process Lubrication and Cooling | p. 296 |
8.2.6 Integrated Measuring Devices | p. 297 |
8.3 Special Grinding Processes | p. 299 |
8.3.1 Peel Grinding Quick Point | p. 299 |
8.3.2 Speed Stroke Grinding | p. 300 |
8.3.3 Creep Feed Grinding | p. 301 |
8.3.4 High Efficiency Deep Grinding | p. 302 |
8.4 Machine and Process Monitoring and Control | p. 302 |
8.4.1 Monitored Parameters and Applied Sensors | p. 303 |
8.4.2 Control Strategies | p. 304 |
References | p. 305 |
9 Wire Electrical Discharge Machines | p. 307 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 307 |
9.2 The WEDM Process | p. 310 |
9.2.1 Accuracy and Speed | p. 312 |
9.3 WEDM Machines | p. 315 |
9.3.1 Wire Transport and Wire Thread Devices | p. 318 |
9.3.2 Machine Automation | p. 319 |
9.3.3 Workpiece Fixturing Systems | p. 321 |
9.3.4 Filtering Systems | p. 322 |
9.4 Wires for WEDM | p. 323 |
9.5 The Wire EDM of Advanced Materials | p. 326 |
9.5.1 Aeronautical Alloys | p. 326 |
9.5.2 Tungsten Carbide | p. 327 |
9.5.3 Advanced Ceramics and PCD | p. 328 |
9.6 Thin-wire EDM | p. 330 |
References | p. 332 |
10 Parallel Kinematics for Machine Tools | p. 335 |
10.1 Introduction | p. 335 |
10.2 Main Characteristics of the Parallel Kinematic Machines | p. 337 |
10.3 A Classification of the Parallel Kinematic Machines | p. 338 |
10.4 A Design Methodology for Parallel Kinematic Machines | p. 339 |
10.4.1 The Motion Pattern | p. 340 |
10.4.2 The Type Synthesis | p. 341 |
10.4.3 The Position Analysis | p. 345 |
10.4.4 Velocity Analysis, Singularities and Dynamics | p. 347 |
10.4.5 The Optimisation | p. 349 |
10.5 The Kinematic Calibration of PKMs | p. 349 |
10.5.1 A Mathematical Approach | p. 351 |
10.5.2 Measuring on External Methods | p. 353 |
10.5.3 Self-calibration Strategies | p. 358 |
10.6 The Control of Parallel Kinematic Machines | p. 358 |
10.6.1 Models Specific to Parallel Kinematics Machines | p. 360 |
10.6.2 The Dynamic Controller | p. 361 |
10.6.3 The Model-based Predictive Controller | p. 363 |
10.7 Conclusions and Future Trends | p. 365 |
References | p. 366 |
11 Micromilling Machines | p. 369 |
11.1 Introduction and Definitions | p. 369 |
11.2 The Micromilling Process | p. 371 |
11.2.1 Micromilling Tools | p. 372 |
11.2.2 Applications | p. 374 |
11.3 Miniaturised Machine Tools | p. 376 |
11.4 Machine Drives | p. 377 |
11.4.1 Conventional Ball Screw Configuration | p. 377 |
11.4.2 Friction Drives | p. 379 |
11.4.3 The Linear Motor | p. 380 |
11.4.4 New Tendencies: Hydrostatic Screws | p. 382 |
11.5 Guideways | p. 383 |
11.5.1 Special Rolling Guides Configurations | p. 383 |
11.5.2 Aerostatic and Hydrostatic Guides | p. 384 |
11.5.3 New Tendencies: Magnetic and Flexure Guidance Systems | p. 386 |
11.6 The High Speed Spindle and Collet | p. 389 |
11.6.1 Alternatives: Hydrostatic and Magnetic Spindles | p. 390 |
11.7 Measuring Systems | p. 392 |
11.8 Examples | p. 393 |
11.8.1 The Kern® Pyramid Nano | p. 393 |
11.8.2 The Kugler® Microgantry nano 3/5X | p. 395 |
References | p. 396 |
12 Machines for the Aeronautical Industry | p. 399 |
12.1 Aeronautical Business | p. 399 |
12.2 Aerospace Components | p. 400 |
12.2.1 Aerospace Structures | p. 401 |
12.2.2 Aerospace Engines | p. 402 |
12.2.3 Accessories | p. 403 |
12.3 Aerospace Materials | p. 403 |
12.4 Costs, Weight and Precision in Machine Tools for Aerospace Machining | p. 405 |
12.4.1 The Drive to Reduce Aircraft Costs | p. 406 |
12.4.2 The Drive to Reduce Aircraft Weight | p. 407 |
12.4.3 The Drive for Aircraft Component Precision | p. 407 |
12.5 Machine Tools for Aeronautical Components | p. 408 |
12.5.1 Machine Tools for Machining Aeronautical Structures | p. 409 |
12.5.2 Machine Tools for Machining Engine Components | p. 413 |
12.5.3 Machine Tools for Machining Accessories and Structure Fittings | p. 417 |
References | p. 419 |
13 Machine Tools for the Automotive Industry | p. 421 |
13.1 World Trends in Automotive Production | p. 421 |
13.1.1 The Economic Impact of the Automotive Industry | p. 421 |
13.1.2 Machining Processes in Automotive Production | p. 422 |
13.2 Manufacturing System Architecture: High Volume Production Versus Flexibility | p. 423 |
13.2.1 Dedicated Machines | p. 424 |
13.2.2 Flexible Cells | p. 427 |
13.2.3 Hybrid Systems | p. 429 |
13.3 Technology Trends | p. 433 |
References | p. 435 |
Index | p. 437 |