How landscapes change : human disturbance and ecosystem fragmentation in the Americas

North and South America share similar human and ecological histories and, increasingly, economic and social linkages. As such, issues of ecosystem functions and disruptions form a common thread among these cultures. This volume synthesizes the perspectives of several disciplines, such as ecology, anthropology, economy, and conservation biology. The chief goal is to gain an understanding of how human and ecological processes interact to affect ecosystem functions and species in the Americas. Throughout the text the emphasis is placed on habitat fragmentation. At the same time, the book provides an overview of current theory, methods, and approaches used in the analysis of ecosystem disruptions and fragmentation.

G.A. Bradshaw and P.A. MarquetL. Nunez and M. GrosjeanS.F. SiebertC. Gascon and W.F. Laurance and T.E. LovejoyP. Alaback and T.T. Veblen and C. Whitlock and A. Lara and T. Kitzberger and R. VillalbaB.J. MeggersM.A. Aizen and P. FeinsingerL. Joseph and M. Cunningham and S. SarreR.O. Bustamante and I.A. Serey and S.T.A. PickettA.V. Suarez and T.J. CaseG.H. Kattan and C. MurciaR.D. Holt and D.M. DebinskiT.H. KeittP.A. Marquet and J.X. Velasco-Hernandez and J.E. KeymerF.M. JaksicL. JosephT.J. Killeen and T.M. Siles and T. Grimwood and L.L. Tieszen and M.K. Steininger and C.J. Tucker and S. PanfilS.G.W. Laurance and W.F. LauranceJ.H. Brown and C.G. Curtin and R.W. BraithwaiteP.A. Marquet and G.A. Bradshaw

Introduction	p. 1
1 Background	p. 1
2 Why the Americas?	p. 2
3 Why Ecosystem Fragmentation?	p. 3
References	p. 4
Part I Causes and Processes of Landscape Fragmentation
1 Biodiversity and Human Intervention During the Last 11,000 Years in North-Central Chile	p. 7
1.1 Introduction	p. 7
1.2 Principal Phases of Human-Environment Interaction in North-Central Chile	p. 8
1.2.1 Biodiversity Changes at the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition	p. 8
1.2.2 Camelid Domestication During the Mid-Holocene: the Rise of a New Human-Environment Interaction	p. 11
1.2.3 The Transition from Mid-Holocene to Modern Climate: Pastoralism and Agricultural Changes	p. 12
1.2.4 Changes During the Historic Period (16th-20th Centuries)	p. 13
References	p. 16
2 Beyond Malthus and Perverse Incentives: Economic Globalization, Forest Conversion and Habitat Fragmentation	p. 19
2.1 Introduction	p. 19
2.2 Demographic Pressures	p. 20
2.3 Perverse Incentives and Market Failures	p. 21
2.4 Economic Globalization	p. 23
2.5 The Case of Chiapas	p. 24
2.6 Chile - The Model of Economic Liberalization	p. 26
2.7 Economic Globalization Effects on Forest Conversion and Habitat Fragmentation	p. 27
2.8 Conclusion	p. 29
References	p. 30
3 Forest Fragmentation and Biodiversity in Central Amazonia	p. 33
3.1 Introduction	p. 33
3.2 Forest Fragmentation and Theory	p. 33
3.3 Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project History and Study Sites	p. 34
3.4 Ecological Consequences of Forest Fragmentation	p. 36
3.4.1 Area and Insularization	p. 36
3.4.2 Edge Creation	p. 38
3.4.3 Matrix Habitat and Landscape Configuration	p. 39
3.5 Forest Fragmentation and Land Management	p. 41
References	p. 43
4 Climatic and Human Influences on Fire Regimes in Temperate Forest Ecosystems in North and South America	p. 49
4.1 Introduction	p. 49
4.1.1 Overview of Climate	p. 51
4.1.2 Lightning	p. 53
4.1.3 Vegetation Patterns	p. 54
4.2 Relation of Climate to Fire Regimes	p. 55
4.2.1 General Patterns	p. 55
4.2.2 Overview of Fire Disturbance Patterns in Western North America	p. 57
4.2.2.1 Yellowstone Region	p. 59
4.2.2.2 Colorado Front Range	p. 61
4.2.3 Current State of Knowledge for Northern Patagonia	p. 62
4.3 Anthropogenic Influences on Fire Regimes - Land Use and Fire Regimes in the Rocky Mountain Region and Northern Patagonia	p. 64
4.3.1 Native American Period	p. 65
4.3.2 The Euro-American Settlement Phase	p. 68
4.3.3 Modern Land-Use Period	p. 69
4.4 Effects of Fire on Landscape Patterns	p. 71
4.5 Summary	p. 72
4.6 Research Needs	p. 73
References	p. 79
5 Natural Versus Anthropogenic Sources of Amazonian Biodiversity: the Continuing Quest for El Dorado	p. 89
5.1 Introduction	p. 89
5.2 Significant Characteristics of the Amazonian Environment	p. 90
5.3 Evidence for Dense Pre-Columbian Populations	p. 91
5.3.1 Botanical Evidence	p. 91
5.3.2 Ethnohistorical Evidence	p. 93
5.3.3 Archeological Evidence	p. 96
5.3.3.1 Earthworks	p. 96
5.3.3.2 Habitation Sites	p. 98
5.3.4 Ethnographic Evidence	p. 99
5.4 Conclusions	p. 102
References	p. 103
Part II Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Fragmentation
6 Bees Not to Be? Responses of Insect Pollinator Faunas and Flower Pollination to Habitat Fragmentation	p. 111
6.1 Introduction	p. 111
6.2 Patterns of Change in Pollinator Faunas Due to Habitat Fragmentation	p. 112
6.3 Mechanisms and Processes Behind Changes in Pollinator Faunas	p. 115
6.4 Scale Considerations	p. 117
6.5 Pollination and Habitat Fragmentation	p. 119
6.6 Concluding Remarks and Research Needs	p. 122
References	p. 124
7 Implications of Evolutionary and Ecological Dynamics to the Genetic Analysis of Fragmentation	p. 131
7.1 Introduction	p. 131
7.2 Post-Fragmentation. A Comparison of Fragmentation Genetics in the Western Australian Wheat Belt and the Rainforests of the Wet Tropics	p. 132
7.2.1 Study Areas	p. 132
7.2.2 Study Species	p. 133
7.2.3 Methodology	p. 134
7.2.4 Results	p. 135
7.3 Pre-Fragmentation. An Alternative Perspective on Genetic Structure of Natural Populations	p. 138
7.3.1 Three Sympatric Amazonian Rodents: Contrasting Genetic Structures	p. 139
7.3.2 Yellow-Footed Rock Wallabies: a Naturally Patchily Distributed Species	p. 140
7.3.3 Eucalyptus argutifolia: Clonal Reproduction and Fragmentation	p. 140
7.4 A Final Theoretical Consideration	p. 141
7.5 Conclusion	p. 142
References	p. 143
8 Forest Fragmentation, Plant Regeneration and Invasion Processes Across Edges in Central Chile	p. 145
8.1 Introduction	p. 145
8.2 Edge Effect and the Invasion of Pinus radiata into Temperate Forests of Central Chile	p. 146
8.3 Results	p. 149
8.4 Discussion	p. 150
8.5 A Graphic Model	p. 151
8.6 Model Application	p. 154
8.6.1 Recruitment of Native Trees	p. 154
8.6.2 Recruitment of Monterrey Pine	p. 155
8.7 General Conclusions	p. 156
8.8 Appendix	p. 157
References	p. 158
9 The Ecological Consequences of a Fragmentation-Mediated Invasion: The Argentine Ant, Linepithema humile, in Southern California	p. 161
9.1 Introduction	p. 161
9.2 Methods	p. 163
9.2.1 Ant Communities of Coastal Scrub Fragments in Southern California	p. 163
9.2.2 The Effects of Argentine Ants on Coastal Horned Lizard Diet	p. 165
9.3 Results	p. 167
9.3.1 Ant Communities of Coastal Scrub Fragments in Southern California	p. 167
9.3.2 The Effects of Argentine Ants on Coastal Horned Lizard Diet	p. 172
9.4 Discussion	p. 174
9.4.1 Local Extinction of Native Ground-Foraging Ants	p. 174
9.4.2 Diet and Prey Preference in Coastal Horned Lizards	p. 176
9.5 Conclusions and Implications for Reserve Management	p. 177
References	p. 178
Part III Ecosystem Fragmentation: Theory, Methods, and Implications for Conservation
10 A Review and Synthesis of Conceptual Frameworks for the Study of Forest Fragmentation	p. 183
10.1 Introduction	p. 183
10.2 Evolution of Studies on the Effects of Forest Fragmentation: Empirical Evidence and Conceptual Frameworks	p. 185
10.3 A Comprehensive Framework	p. 188
10.3.1 The Process of Fragmentation	p. 188
10.3.2 Effects of Fragmentation on Animal Populations	p. 190
10.4 Framing the Evidence	p. 195
References	p. 197
11 Reflections on Landscape Experiments and Ecological Theory: Tools for the Study of Habitat Fragmentation	p. 201
11.1 Introduction	p. 201
11.2 Theoretical Context	p. 203
11.2.1 Area Effects	p. 203
11.2.2 Dispersal Effects	p. 204
11.2.3 Heterogeneous Landscape Effects	p. 205
11.2.4 Interspecific Interaction and Food Web Effects	p. 206
11.3 What Is a Fragmentation Experiment?	p. 208
11.4 Why Do Experiments on Fragmentation?	p. 208
11.5 A Global Survey of Fragmentation Experiments	p. 210
11.6 A Case Study: The Kansas Experimentally Fragmented Landscape	p. 212
11.6.1 Core Findings, 1985-1990	p. 214
11.6.2 Core Findings, 1991-Present	p. 214
11.7 Limitations in Experimental Fragmentation Studies	p. 215
11.8 Conclusions	p. 217
References	p. 218
12 Spatial Autocorrelation, Dispersal and the Maintenance of Source-Sink Populations	p. 225
12.1 Introduction	p. 225
12.2 Spatial Autocorrelation	p. 226
12.3 Models and Methods	p. 227
12.3.1 Population Processes	p. 227
12.3.2 Landscape Model	p. 228
12.3.3 Dispersal Model	p. 230
12.3.4. Modeling Scenarios	p. 231
12.4 Results and Discussion	p. 231
12.5 Management Implications	p. 233
12.6 Appendix A: Mathematical Models	p. 234
12.6.1 Fractal Landscapes	p. 234
12.6.2 Stochastic Landscape Networks	p. 235
12.7 Appendix B: Statistical Analysis and Results	p. 237
References	p. 238
13 Patch Dynamics, Habitat Degradation and Space in Metapopulations	p. 239
13.1 Introduction	p. 239
13.2 Levins' Original Model	p. 240
13.3 Incorporating Patch Dynamics and Habitat Degradation (Model 2)	p. 241
13.4 The Invasion Threshold	p. 243
13.5 The Threshold Parameter in Levins' Metapopulation Model	p. 244
13.6 Threshold Parameters for Model 2	p. 244
13.7 A Spatially Explicit Metapopulation Model	p. 247
13.8 Spatial Habitat Dynamics	p. 249
13.9 The Interaction Between Metapopulation Dynamics and Habitat Dynamics	p. 251
References	p. 253
14 How Much Functional Redundancy Is Out There, or, Are We Willing to Do Away with Potential Backup Species?	p. 255
14.1 The Issue	p. 255
14.2 Soft Evidence for Redundancy	p. 255
14.3 Somewhat Harder Evidence for Redundancy	p. 256
14.4 How Will We Know What Is Redundant?	p. 259
14.5 What If Backup Species Are Necessary for Ecosystem Persistence?	p. 260
References	p. 261
15 Predicting Distributions of South American Migrant Birds in Fragmented Environments: A Possible Approach Based on Climate	p. 263
15.1 Introduction	p. 263
15.2 Methods	p. 265
15.3 Results	p. 272
15.3.1 Sterna maxima	p. 272
15.3.2 Colorhamphus parvirostris	p. 274
15.3.3 Serpophaga griseiceps	p. 274
15.3.4 Myiarchus swainsoni swainsoni and Myiarchus swainsoni ferocior	p. 275
15.3.5 Elaenia strepera	p. 275
15.3.6 Elaenia chiriquensis albivertex	p. 275
15.3.7 Sporophila lineola	p. 276
15.3.8 Elaenia albiceps chilensis	p. 276
15.4 Discussion	p. 278
References	p. 281
16 Habitat Heterogeneity on a Forest-Savanna Ecotone in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (Santa Cruz, Bolivia): Implications for the Long-Term Conservation of Biodiversity in a Changing Climate	p. 285
16.1 Introduction	p. 285
16.2 Climatic Stress	p. 291
16.3 Geomorphology	p. 292
16.4 Fire	p. 297
16.5 Flooding	p. 299
16.6 Succession on the Savanna-Forest Interface	p. 300
16.7 Direct Evidence for Past Climate Change	p. 302
16.8 Conservation Issues	p. 308
References	p. 310
17 Bandages for Wounded Landscapes: Faunal Corridors and Their Role in Wildlife Conservation in the Americas	p. 313
17.1 Introduction	p. 313
17.2 Considerations in Corridor Design	p. 314
17.2.1 Corridor Width	p. 314
17.2.2 Corridor Length	p. 316
17.2.3 Faunal Stepping Stones	p. 317
17.2.4 Primary Versus Secondary Habitat	p. 317
17.2.5 Topographic Position	p. 317
17.2.6 Nonterrestrial Corridors	p. 318
17.3 Design and Management of Faunal Corridors	p. 318
17.3.1 Conclusions About Corridor Effectiveness	p. 318
17.3.2 Guidelines and Principles for Corridor Design	p. 319
17.3.3 Proactive Landscape Management	p. 320
References	p. 321
18 Management of the Semi-Natural Matrix	p. 327
18.1 Introduction	p. 327
18.2 Definition	p. 327
18.3 Land Area and Use	p. 329
18.4 Role in Conservation	p. 330
18.5 Case Study: Temperate Ecosystems--Conflicts Between Traditional Conservation Goals and Management of the Matrix	p. 331
18.6 Management Goals and Methods	p. 336
18.7 Priorities	p. 338
18.8 Concluding Remarks	p. 339
References	p. 340
Human Disturbance and Ecosystem Fragmentation in the Americas Synthesis and Final Reflections	p. 345
How Landscapes Change: The Need of a Framework for Understanding	p. 345
Humans and Landscape Changes in the Americas: A Plea for Integration	p. 348
Fragmentation in the Americas: On the Road to Ecosystem Disruption?	p. 350
What to do next	p. 351
References	p. 352
Subject Index	p. 355

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