Occupational biomechanics

Praise for previous editions of Occupational Biomechanics

"This book is a valuable resource for any advanced ergonomist interested in physical ergonomics . . . provides valuable research information."
-Ergonomics in Design

"[This book] represents a distillation of the authors' combined years of experience in applying biomechanicsin various industries and work situations . . . I recommend this book to anyone, regardless of discipline, who is interested in understanding the many biomechanical factors which must be considered when trying to effectthe prevention and reduction of musculoskeletal injuries in the workplace."
-Journal of Biomechanics

"Impressive descriptions of biomechanical concepts and worksite considerations . . . based not only on mechanical and mathematical principles, but on solid anatomical and physiologic constructs . . . a very valuablereference source."
-Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology

THE DEFINITIVE TEXT ON DESIGNING FOR THE DEMANDS OF TODAY'S WORKPLACE

With critical applications in manufacturing, transportation, defense, security, environmental safety and occupational health, and other industries, the field of occupational biomechanics is more central to industrial design than ever before.

This latest edition of the popular and widely adopted Occupational Biomechanics provides the foundations and tools to assemble and evaluate biomechanical processes as they apply to today's changing industries, with emphasis on improving overall work efficiency and preventing work-related injuries. The book expertly weaves engineering and medical information from diverse sources and provides a coherent treatment of the biomechanical principles underlying the well-designed and ergonomically sound workplace.

NEW TO THIS THOROUGHLY REVISED AND UPDATED FOURTH EDITION:
* 150 new references and many new illustrations
* Major changes within each chapter that reflect recent and significant findings
* Recent research in musculoskeletal disorders
* New measurement techniques for biomechanical parameters and numerous international initiatives on the subject

Presented in an easy-to-understand manner and supported by over 200 illustrations and numerous examples, Occupational Biomechanics, Fourth Edition remains the premier one-stop reference for students and professionals in the areas of industrial engineering, product and process design, medicine, and occupational health and safety.

Author Notes

DON B. CHAFFIN , PhD, is a Distinguished University Professor of Industrial and Operations Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, and Occupational Health; and Director of the Human Motion Simulation Laboratory at the University of Michigan.

GUNNAR B. J. ANDERSSON , MD, PhD, is Chairman and Professor of Orthopedic Surgery at the Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, Illinois.

BERNARD J. MARTIN , PhD, DSc, is Associate Professor of Industrial and Operations Engineering and research fellow in the Division of Kinesiology at the University of Michigan.

Foreword	p. xi
Preface	p. xiii
Acknowledgments	p. xv
1 Occupational Biomechanics as a Specialty	p. 1
1.1 Definition of Occupational Biomechanics	p. 1
1.2 Historical Development of Occupational Biomechanics	p. 2
1.2.1 Kinesiological Developments	p. 4
1.2.2 Developments in Biomechanical Modeling	p. 4
1.2.3 Developments in Anthropometry	p. 5
1.2.4 Methods for Evaluating Mechanical Work Capacity	p. 5
1.2.5 Developments in Bioinstrumentation	p. 5
1.2.6 Developments in Motion Classification and Time Prediction Systems	p. 5
1.3 The Need for an Occupational Biomechanics Specialty	p. 6
1.3.1 Epidemiological Support for Occupational Biomechanics	p. 6
1.3.2 Social and Legal Support for Occupational Biomechanics	p. 6
1.3.3 Ergonomic Support for Occupational Biomechanics	p. 7
1.4 Who Uses Occupational Biomechanics?	p. 7
1.5 Organization of The Book	p. 8
Review Questions	p. 8
References	p. 8
2 The Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System	p. 11
2.1 Introduction	p. 11
2.2 Connective Tissue	p. 11
2.2.1 Ligaments, Tendons, and Fascia	p. 11
2.2.2 Cartilage	p. 13
2.2.3 Bone	p. 13
2.3 Skeletal Muscle	p. 17
2.3.1 The Structure of Muscles	p. 17
2.3.2 The Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction	p. 19
2.3.3 The Energy Metabolism of Muscle	p. 20
2.3.4 The Nerve Impulse Causing Muscle Contraction	p. 21
2.3.5 Mechanical Aspects of Muscle Contraction	p. 21
2.3.6 Muscle Fatigue	p. 25
2.3.7 Quantification and Prediction of Fatigue	p. 26
2.3.8 Age and Gender Sensitivity to Fatigue	p. 28
2.3.9 The Action of Muscles	p. 28
2.4 Joints	p. 30
2.4.1 The Synovial Joint	p. 30
2.4.2 Joint Lubrication	p. 31
2.4.3 Osteoarthritis	p. 32
2.4.4 Intervertebral Discs	p. 32
Review Questions	p. 33
References	p. 33
3 Anthropometry in Occupational Biomechanics	p. 37
3.1 Measurement of Physical Properties of Body Segments	p. 37
3.1.1 Body-segment Link Length Measurement Methods	p. 37
3.1.2 Body-segment Volume and Weight	p. 39
3.1.3 Body-segment Locations of Center of Mass	p. 40
3.1.4 Body-segment Inertial Property Measurement Methods	p. 42
3.2 Anthropometric Data for Biomechanical Studies in Industry	p. 45
3.2.1 Segment Link Length Data	p. 45
3.2.2 Segment Weight Data	p. 46
3.2.3 Segment Mass-center Location Data	p. 48
3.2.4 Segment Moment-of-Inertia and Radius-of-Gyration Data	p. 48
3.3 Summary of Anthropometry in Occupational Biomechanics	p. 49
Review Questions	p. 49
References	p. 51
4 Mechanical Work Capacity Evaluation	p. 53
4.1 Introduction	p. 53
4.2 Joint Motion: Methods and Data	p. 53
4.2.1 Methods of Measuring Joint Motion	p. 54
4.2.2 Normal Ranges of Joint Motion	p. 56
4.2.3 Factors Affecting Range-of-Motion Data	p. 57
4.3 Muscle Strength Evaluation	p. 58
4.3.1 Definition of Muscular Strength	p. 58
4.3.2 Static and Dynamic Strength-Testing Methods	p. 60
4.3.3 Population Muscle Strength Values	p. 64
4.3.4 Personal Factors Affecting Strength	p. 68
4.4 Summary and Limitations of Mechanical Work-Capacity Data	p. 70
Review Questions	p. 71
References	p. 71
5 Bioinstrumentation for Occupational Biomechanics	p. 75
5.1 Introduction	p. 75
5.2 Human Motion Analysis Systems	p. 75
5.2.1 Basis for Measuring Human Motion	p. 75
5.3 Muscle Activity Measurement	p. 84
5.3.1 Applied Electromyography	p. 84
5.3.2 Mechanomyography	p. 88
5.3.3 Intramuscular Pressure	p. 88
5.4 Muscle Strength Measurement Systems	p. 89
5.4.1 Localized Static Strength Measurement Systems	p. 89
5.4.2 Whole-Body Static Strength Measurement System	p. 90
5.4.3 Whole-Body Dynamic Strength Measurement System	p. 91
5.5 Intradiscal Pressure Measurement	p. 91
5.5.1 Measurement Concept	p. 91
5.5.2 Intradiscal Pressure Measurement System	p. 92
5.5.3 Applications and Limitations in Occupational Biomechanics	p. 93
5.6 Intra-Abdominal (Intragastric) Measurements	p. 93
5.6.1 Measurement Development	p. 93
5.6.2 Measurement System	p. 93
5.6.3 Applications and Limitations in Occupational Biomechanics	p. 94
5.7 Seat Pressure Measurement Systems	p. 95
5.8 Stature Measurement System	p. 97
5.9 Force Platform System	p. 97
5.10 Foot and Hand Force Measurement System	p. 98
5.11 Measurement of Vibration in Humans	p. 99
Review Questions	p. 100
References	p. 100
6 Occupational Biomechanical Models	p. 109
6.1 Why Model?	p. 109
6.2 Planar Static Biomechanical Models	p. 110
6.2.1 Single-body-segment Static Model	p. 110
6.2.2 Two-body-segment Static Model	p. 113
6.2.3 Static Planar Model of Nonparallel Forces	p. 115
6.2.4 Planar Static Analysis of Internal Forces	p. 116
6.2.5 Multiple-Link Coplanar Static Modeling	p. 119
6.3 Three-Dimensional Modeling of Static Strength	p. 121
6.4 Dynamic Biomechanical Models	p. 124
6.4.1 Single-segment Dynamic Biomechanical Model	p. 124
6.4.2 Multiple-segment Biodynamic Model of Load Lifting	p. 126
6.4.3 Coplanar Biomechanical Models of Foot Slip Potential While Pushing a Cart	p. 128
6.5 Special-Purpose Biomechanical Models of Occupational Tasks	p. 130
6.5.1 Low-back Biomechanical Models	p. 130
6.5.2 Biomechanical Models of the Wrist and Hand	p. 146
6.5.3 Modeling Muscle Strength	p. 150
6.6 Future Developments in Occupational Biomechanical Models	p. 153
Review Questions	p. 154
References	p. 155
7 Methods of Classifying and Evaluating Manual Work	p. 161
7.1 Traditional Methods	p. 161
7.1.1 Historical Perspective	p. 161
7.2 Traditional Work Analysis System	p. 163
7.2.1 MTM: An Example of a Predetermined Motion-Time System	p. 163
7.2.2 Benefits and Limitations in Contemporary Work Analysis Systems	p. 165
7.3 Contemporary Biomechanical Job Analysis	p. 166
7.3.1 Identification of Musculoskeletal Injury Problems	p. 166
7.3.2 Analyzing Biomechanical Risk Factors	p. 168
7.3.3 Specialized Biomechanical Risk Factor Evaluation	p. 170
7.3.4 Emgs in Job Evaluation	p. 179
7.4 Future Impact of Occupational Biomechanics on Work Analysis Systems	p. 179
Review Questions	p. 180
References	p. 181
8 Manual Material-Handling Limits	p. 183
8.1 Introduction	p. 183
8.2 Lifting Limits in Manual Material Handling	p. 184
8.2.1 Scope of NIOSH Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting	p. 186
8.2.2 Basis and Structure of the 1994 NIOSH-Recommended Weight-Lifting Limit	p. 187
8.2.3 Example of NIOSH RWL Procedure	p. 188
8.2.4 Comments on the Status of the NIOSH Lifting Guide	p. 189
8.2.5 Alternative Recommendations for Evaluating Manual Lifting Tasks	p. 190
8.3 Pushing and Pulling Capabilities	p. 191
8.3.1 Foot-slip Prevention During Pushing and Pulling	p. 193
8.4 Asymmetric Load Handling	p. 194
8.4.1 Toward a Comprehensive Manual Material-Handling Guide	p. 197
8.5 Recommendations for Improving Manual Material-Handling Tasks	p. 198
8.6 Summary of Manual Material-handling Recommendations and Evaluation Methods	p. 202
Review Questions	p. 203
References	p. 203
9 Guidelines for Work in Sitting Postures	p. 207
9.1 General Considerations Related to Sitting Postures	p. 207
9.2 Anthropometric Aspects of Seated Workers	p. 209
9.3 Comfort	p. 211
9.4 The Spine and Sitting	p. 211
9.4.1 Clinical Aspects of Sitting Postures	p. 211
9.4.2 Radiographic Data	p. 212
9.4.3 Disc Pressure Data During Sitting	p. 213
9.4.4 Muscle Activity	p. 214
9.4.5 Sitting Postures and The Spine	p. 216
9.5 The Shoulder and Sitting	p. 216
9.6 The Legs and Sitting	p. 217
9.7 The Sitting Workplace	p. 218
9.7.1 The Office Chair	p. 218
9.7.2 The Table in a Seated Workplace	p. 221
9.7.3 Visual Display Terminal Workstations	p. 222
9.8 Summary	p. 223
Review Questions	p. 223
References	p. 223
10 Biomechanical Considerations in Machine Control and Workplace Design	p. 227
10.1 Introduction	p. 227
10.1.1 Localized Musculoskeletal Injury in Industry	p. 227
10.2 Practical Guidelines for Workplace and Machine Control Layout	p. 231
10.2.1 Structure-Function Characteristics of the Shoulder Mechanism	p. 231
10.2.2 Shoulder-Dependent Overhead Reach Limitations	p. 234
10.2.3 Shoulder- and Arm-Dependent Forward Reach Limits	p. 235
10.2.4 Neck-Head Posture Work Limitations	p. 239
10.2.5 Torso Postural Considerations In Workbench Height Limitations	p. 241
10.2.6 Biomechanical Considerations In The Design Of Computer Workstations	p. 242
10.3 Summary	p. 243
Review Questions	p. 244
References	p. 244
11 Hand-Tool Design Guidelines	p. 249
11.1 The Need for Biomechanical Concepts in Design	p. 249
11.2 Shape and Size Considerations	p. 251
11.2.1 Shape for Avoiding Wrist Deviation	p. 251
11.2.2 Shape for Avoiding Shoulder Abduction	p. 252
11.2.3 Shape to Assist Grip	p. 253
11.2.4 Size of Tool Handle to Facilitate Grip	p. 254
11.2.5 Finger Clearance Considerations	p. 255
11.2.6 Gloves	p. 256
11.3 Hand-Tool Weight and Use Considerations	p. 256
11.4 Force Reaction Considerations in Powered Hand-Tool Design	p. 257
11.5 Keyboard Design Considerations	p. 258
11.5.1 Posture Stress	p. 259
11.5.2 Keying Exertion Force Repetition	p. 259
11.6 Summary	p. 260
Review Questions	p. 260
References	p. 260
12 Guidelines for Whole-Body and Segmental Vibration	p. 265
12.1 Definitions and Measurement	p. 265
12.1.1 Definitions	p. 265
12.1.2 Measurement of Vibration	p. 267
12.2 General Effects of Vibration on Human Beings	p. 269
12.3 Whole-Body Vibration	p. 269
12.3.1 Effects of Low-Frequency Vibration	p. 269
12.3.2 Effects of Middle-Frequency Vibration	p. 270
12.3.3 Biomechanical Effects on the Spine	p. 272
12.3.4 Physiological Responses	p. 273
12.4 Hand-Arm Vibration	p. 274
12.4.1 Transmission of Vibration in the Upper Extremity	p. 274
12.4.2 Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome	p. 275
12.5 Sensorimotor Effects	p. 276
12.6 Vibration Exposure Criteria	p. 278
12.6.1 Whole-Body Vibration Recommendations	p. 278
12.6.2 Hand-Arm Vibration Recommendations	p. 279
12.7 Control and Prevention	p. 280
Review Questions	p. 280
References	p. 281
13 Worker Selection, Training, and Personal Protective Device Consideration	p. 285
13.1 Worker Selection	p. 285
13.1.1 Introduction To Worker Selection	p. 285
13.1.2 History And Physical Examination	p. 288
13.1.3 Radiographic Preplacement Examination	p. 289
13.1.4 Quantitative Physical Preplacement Screening	p. 289
13.2 Preplacement Training	p. 291
13.2.1 General Content of Training	p. 291
13.2.2 How Workers Should Be Trained	p. 293
13.3 Biomechanical Aspects of Back Belts	p. 294
13.3.1 Passive Stiffness Effects of Back Belts	p. 294
13.3.2 Abdominal Pressure Effects of Back Belts	p. 295
13.3.3 Reduced Torso Mobility Effects Due to Back Belts	p. 296
13.4 Job Rotation and Psychosocial Stress	p. 296
13.5 Summary	p. 297
Review Questions	p. 297
References	p. 297
14 Summary	p. 301
References	p. 303
Appendix A p. 305
Part 1 Anatomical and Anthropometric Landmarks as Presented by Webb and Associates	p. 305
Part 2 Glossary of Anatomical and Anthropometric Terms	p. 308
Appendix B Population Weight and Mass-Center Data	p. 313
Table B.1 Segment Weight Values Derived from Regression Equations Using Total Body Weight as the Independent Variable	p. 314
Table B.2 Anatomical Location of Segment Centers of Gravity (Center of Mass)	p. 315
Table B.3 Segment Moments of Inertia	p. 316
Table B.4 Joint Center Locations and Link Definitions	p. 317
Appendix C Terms and Units of Measurement in Biomechanics	p. 319
Appendix D NIOSH 1994 Tables	p. 331
Appendix E Push and Pull Fore Tables	p. 335
Appendix F Data Gathering-Job Risk Factors	p. 337
Appendix G Some General Web Sites that Complement References in Text	p. 349
Index	p. 351

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