Signal processing of power quality disturbances

Title:

Personal Author:

Bollen, Math H. J.

Series:

IEEE Press series on power engineering

Publication Information:

New York, NY : John Wiley & Sons, 2006

ISBN:

9780471731689

Subject Term:

Electric power system stability

Electric power systems -- Quality control

Signal processing

Added Author:

Gu, Irene Yu-Hua

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Bridging the gap between power quality and signal processing

This innovative new text brings together two leading experts, one from signal processing and the other from power quality. Combining their fields of expertise, they set forth and investigate various types of power quality disturbances, how measurements of these disturbances are processed and interpreted, and, finally, the use and interpretation of power quality standards documents.

As a practical aid to readers, the authors make a clear distinction between two types of power quality disturbances:
* Variations: disturbances that are continuously present
* Events: disturbances that occur occasionally

A complete analysis and full set of tools are provided for each type of disturbance:
* Detailed examination of the origin of the disturbance
* Signal processing measurement techniques, including advanced techniques and those techniques set forth in standards documents
* Interpretation and analysis of measurement data
* Methods for further processing the features extracted from the signal processing into site and system indices

The depth of coverage is outstanding: the authors present and analyze material that is not covered in the standards nor found in the scientific literature.

This text is intended for two groups of readers: students and researchers in power engineering who need to use signal processing techniques for power system applications, and students and researchers in signal processing who need to perform power system disturbance analyses and diagnostics. It is also highly recommended for any engineer or utility professional involved in power quality monitoring.

Author Notes

Math H.J. Bollen grew up in Geulle, The Netherlands, and received the PhD degree in 1989. Currently, he is manager of EMC and Power Quality at STRI, Ludvika, Sweden, and a guest professor at Luleå University of Technology. Math is known for his contributions to power quality analysis through numerous papers, working-group activities, and an earlier textbook, Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions, (Wiley-IEEE Press). In 2005, he became an IEEE Fellow for his contributions to methods for reliability and power quality analysis.

Irene Y.H. Gu grew up in Shanghai, China. She moved to The Netherlands in 1988 and received the PhD degree in 1992. Since 1996 she has been with the Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers University of Technology (Gothenburg, Sweden) and has been a professor in signal processing there since 2004. She is also a guest professor at Shanghai Jiao Tong University (China). Irene Gu and Math Bollen were married in Eindhoven in 1992.

Preface	p. xvii
Acknowledgments	p. xix
1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Modern View of Power Systems	p. 1
1.2 Power Quality	p. 4
1.2.1 Interest in Power Quality	p. 4
1.2.2 Definition of Power Quality	p. 6
1.2.3 Events and Variations	p. 9
1.2.4 Power Quality Monitoring	p. 11
1.3 Signal Processing and Power Quality	p. 16
1.3.1 Monitoring Process	p. 16
1.3.2 Decomposition	p. 18
1.3.3 Stationary and Nonstationary Signals	p. 19
1.3.4 Machine Learning and Automatic Classification	p. 20
1.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards	p. 20
1.4.1 Basic Principles	p. 20
1.4.2 Stochastic Approach	p. 23
1.4.3 Events and Variations	p. 25
1.4.4 Three Phases	p. 25
1.5 Overview of Power Quality Standards	p. 26
1.6 Compatibility Between Equipment and Supply	p. 27
1.6.1 Normal Operation	p. 27
1.6.2 Normal Events	p. 28
1.6.3 Abnormal Events	p. 28
1.7 Distributed Generation	p. 31
1.7.1 Impact of Distributed Generation on Current and Voltage Quality	p. 31
1.7.2 Tripping of Generator Units	p. 33
1.8 Conclusions	p. 36
1.9 About This Book	p. 37
2 Origin of Power Quality Variations	p. 41
2.1 Voltage Frequency Variations	p. 41
2.1.1 Power Balance	p. 41
2.1.2 Power-Frequency Control	p. 43
2.1.3 Consequences of Frequency Variations	p. 47
2.1.4 Measurement Examples	p. 49
2.2 Voltage Magnitude Variations	p. 52
2.2.1 Effect of Voltage Variations on Equipment	p. 52
2.2.2 Calculation of Voltage Magnitude	p. 54
2.2.3 Voltage Control Methods	p. 60
2.3 Voltage Unbalance	p. 67
2.3.1 Symmetrical Components	p. 68
2.3.2 Interpretation of Symmetrical Components	p. 69
2.3.3 Power Definitions in Symmetrical Components: Basic Expressions	p. 71
2.3.4 The dq-Transform	p. 73
2.3.5 Origin of Unbalance	p. 74
2.3.6 Consequences of Unbalance	p. 79
2.4 Voltage Fluctuations and Light Flicker	p. 82
2.4.1 Sources of Voltage Fluctuations	p. 83
2.4.2 Description of Voltage Fluctuations	p. 87
2.4.3 Light Flicker	p. 92
2.4.4 Incandescent Lamps	p. 93
2.4.5 Perception of Light Fluctuations	p. 99
2.4.6 Flickercurve	p. 100
2.4.7 Flickermeter Standard	p. 101
2.4.8 Flicker with Other Types of Lighting	p. 109
2.4.9 Other Effects of Voltage Fluctuations	p. 111
2.5 Waveform Distortion	p. 112
2.5.1 Consequences of Waveform Distortion	p. 112
2.5.2 Overview of Waveform Distortion	p. 117
2.5.3 Harmonic Distortion	p. 120
2.5.4 Sources of Waveform Distortion	p. 129
2.5.5 Harmonic Propagation and Resonance	p. 151
2.6 Summary and Conclusions	p. 158
2.6.1 Voltage Frequency Variations	p. 158
2.6.2 Voltage Magnitude Variations	p. 159
2.6.3 Voltage Unbalance	p. 159
2.6.4 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker	p. 160
2.6.5 Waveform Distortion	p. 161
3 Processing of Stationary Signals	p. 163
3.1 Overview of Methods	p. 163
3.2 Parameters That Characterize Variations	p. 167
3.2.1 Voltage Frequency Variations	p. 168
3.2.2 Voltage Magnitude Variations	p. 173
3.2.3 Waveform Distortion	p. 181
3.2.4 Three-Phase Unbalance	p. 193
3.3 Power Quality Indices	p. 204
3.3.1 Total Harmonic Distortion	p. 204
3.3.2 Crest Factor	p. 207
3.3.3 Transformers: K-factor	p. 207
3.3.4 Capacitor Banks	p. 208
3.3.5 Motors and Generators	p. 209
3.3.6 Telephone Interference Factor	p. 210
3.3.7 Three-Phase Harmonic Measurements	p. 211
3.3.8 Power and Power Factor	p. 217
3.4 Frequency-Domain Analysis and Signal Transformation	p. 220
3.4.1 Continuous and Discrete Fourier Series	p. 220
3.4.2 Discrete Fourier Transform	p. 222
3.5 Estimation of Harmonics and Interharmonics	p. 231
3.5.1 Sinusoidal Models and High-Resolution Line Spectral Analysis	p. 231
3.5.2 Multiple Signal Classification	p. 233
3.5.3 Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance Techniques	p. 243
3.5.4 Kalman Filters	p. 254
3.6 Estimation of Broadband Spectrum	p. 269
3.6.1 AR Models	p. 269
3.6.2 ARMA Models	p. 270
3.7 Summary and Conclusions	p. 271
3.7.1 Frequency Variations	p. 272
3.7.2 Voltage Magnitude Variations	p. 272
3.7.3 Three-Phase Unbalance	p. 273
3.7.4 Waveform Distortion	p. 273
3.7.5 Methods for Spectral Analysis	p. 274
3.7.6 General Issues	p. 275
3.8 Further Reading	p. 276
4 Processing of Nonstationary Signals	p. 277
4.1 Overview of Some Nonstationary Power Quality Data Analysis Methods	p. 278
4.1.1 Non-Model-Based Methods	p. 278
4.1.2 Model-Based Methods	p. 279
4.2 Discrete STFT for Analyzing Time-Evolving Signal Components	p. 279
4.2.1 Interpretation of STFT as Bank of Subband Filters with Equal Bandwidth	p. 281
4.2.2 Time Resolution and Frequency Resolution	p. 281
4.2.3 Selecting Center Frequencies of Bandpass Filters	p. 283
4.2.4 Leakage and Selection of Windows	p. 283
4.3 Discrete Wavelet Transforms for Time-Scale Analysis of Disturbances	p. 286
4.3.1 Structure of Multiscale Analysis and Synthesis Filter Banks	p. 287
4.3.2 Conditions for Perfect Reconstruction	p. 288
4.3.3 Orthogonal Two-Channel PR Filter Banks	p. 289
4.3.4 Linear-Phase Two-Channel PR Filter Banks	p. 290
4.3.5 Possibility for Two-Channel PR FIR Filter Banks with Both Linear-Phase and Orthogonality	p. 291
4.3.6 Steps for Designing Two-Channel PR FIR Filter Banks	p. 292
4.3.7 Discussion	p. 295
4.3.8 Consideration in Power Quality Data Analysis: Choosing Wavelets or STFTs?	p. 296
4.4 Block-Based Modeling	p. 297
4.4.1 Why Divide Data into Blocks?	p. 297
4.4.2 Divide Data into Fixed-Size Blocks	p. 298
4.4.3 Block-Based AR Modeling	p. 298
4.4.4 Sliding-Window MUSIC and ESPRIT	p. 305
4.5 Models Directly Applicable to Nonstationary Data	p. 310
4.5.1 Kalman Filters	p. 310
4.5.2 Discussion: Sliding-Window ESPRIT/MUSIC Versus Kalman Filter	p. 314
4.6 Summary and Conclusion	p. 314
4.7 Further Reading	p. 315
5 Statistics of Variations	p. 317
5.1 From Features to System Indices	p. 318
5.2 Time Aggregation	p. 319
5.2.1 Need for Aggregation	p. 320
5.2.2 IEC 61000-4-30	p. 322
5.2.3 Voltage and Current Steps	p. 328
5.2.4 Very Short Variations	p. 330
5.2.5 Flagging	p. 337
5.2.6 Phase Aggregation	p. 342
5.3 Characteristics Versus Time	p. 343
5.3.1 Arc-Furnace Voltages and Currents	p. 343
5.3.2 Voltage Frequency	p. 350
5.3.3 Voltage Magnitude	p. 354
5.3.4 Very Short Variations	p. 358
5.3.5 Harmonic Distortion	p. 360
5.4 Site Indices	p. 364
5.4.1 General Overview	p. 365
5.4.2 Frequency Variations	p. 366
5.4.3 Voltage Variations	p. 369
5.4.4 Very Short Variations	p. 373
5.4.5 Voltage Unbalance	p. 374
5.4.6 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker	p. 376
5.4.7 Voltage Distortion	p. 378
5.4.8 Combined Indices	p. 381
5.5 System Indices	p. 382
5.5.1 General	p. 382
5.5.2 Frequency Variations	p. 384
5.5.3 Voltage Variations	p. 385
5.5.4 Voltage Fluctuations	p. 386
5.5.5 Unbalance	p. 387
5.5.6 Distortion	p. 387
5.6 Power Quality Objectives	p. 392
5.6.1 Point of Common Coupling	p. 393
5.6.2 Voltage Characteristics, Compatibility Levels, and Planning Levels	p. 393
5.6.3 Voltage Characteristics EN 50160	p. 395
5.6.4 Compatibility Levels: IEC 61000-2-2	p. 397
5.6.5 Planning Levels: IEC 61000-3-6	p. 398
5.6.6 Current Distortion by Customers: IEC 61000-3-6; IEEE Standard 519	p. 399
5.6.7 Current Distortion by Equipment: IEC 61000-3-2	p. 402
5.6.8 Other Power Quality Objectives	p. 406
5.7 Summary and Conclusions	p. 410
6 Origin of Power Quality Events	p. 415
6.1 Interruptions	p. 416
6.1.1 Terminology	p. 416
6.1.2 Causes of Interruptions	p. 417
6.1.3 Restoration and Voltage Recovery	p. 421
6.1.4 Multiple Interruptions	p. 424
6.2 Voltage Dips	p. 425
6.2.1 Causes of Voltage Dips	p. 425
6.2.2 Voltage-Dip Examples	p. 426
6.2.3 Voltage Dips in Three Phases	p. 453
6.2.4 Phase-Angle Jumps Associated with Voltage Dips	p. 472
6.2.5 Voltage Recovery After a Fault	p. 477
6.3 Transients	p. 486
6.3.1 What Are Transients?	p. 486
6.3.2 Lightning Transients	p. 488
6.3.3 Normal Switching Transients	p. 489
6.3.4 Abnormal Switching Transients	p. 502
6.3.5 Examples of Voltage and Current Transients	p. 509
6.4 Summary and Conclusions	p. 514
6.4.1 Interruptions	p. 514
6.4.2 Voltage Dips	p. 514
6.4.3 Transients	p. 515
6.4.4 Other Events	p. 517
7 Triggering and Segmentation	p. 519
7.1 Overview of Existing Methods	p. 520
7.1.1 Dips, Swells, and Interruptions	p. 520
7.1.2 Transients	p. 523
7.1.3 Other Proposed Methods	p. 524
7.2 Basic Concepts of Triggering and Segmentation	p. 526
7.3 Triggering Methods	p. 529
7.3.1 Changes in rms or Waveforms	p. 529
7.3.2 High-Pass Filters	p. 530
7.3.3 Detecting Singular Points from Wavelet Transforms	p. 531
7.3.4 Prominent Residuals from Models	p. 532
7.4 Segmentation	p. 536
7.4.1 Basic Idea for Segmentation of Disturbance Data	p. 536
7.4.2 Using Residuals of Sinusoidal Models	p. 538
7.4.3 Using Residuals of AR Models	p. 550
7.4.4 Using Fundamental-Voltage Magnitude or rms Sequences	p. 555
7.4.5 Using Time-Dependent Subband Components from Wavelets	p. 563
7.5 Summary and Conclusions	p. 569
8 Characterization of Power Quality Events	p. 573
8.1 Voltage Magnitude Versus Time	p. 574
8.1.1 Rms Voltage	p. 574
8.1.2 Half-Cycle rms	p. 579
8.1.3 Alternative Magnitude Definitions	p. 580
8.2 Phase Angle Versus Time	p. 583
8.3 Three-Phase Characteristics Versus Time	p. 591
8.3.1 Symmetrical-Component Method	p. 591
8.3.2 Implementation of Symmetrical-Component Method	p. 593
8.3.3 Six-Phase Algorithm	p. 601
8.3.4 Performance of Two Algorithms	p. 604
8.4 Distortion During Event	p. 611
8.5 Single-Event Indices: Interruptions	p. 615
8.6 Single-Event Indices: Voltage Dips	p. 616
8.6.1 Residual Voltage and Duration	p. 616
8.6.2 Depth of a Voltage Dip	p. 617
8.6.3 Definition of Reference Voltage	p. 617
8.6.4 Sliding-Reference Voltage	p. 618
8.6.5 Multiple-Threshold Setting	p. 619
8.6.6 Uncertainty in Residual Voltage	p. 619
8.6.7 Point on Wave	p. 620
8.6.8 Phase-Angle Jump	p. 623
8.6.9 Single-Index Methods	p. 625
8.7 Single-Event Indices: Voltage Swells	p. 628
8.8 Single-Event Indices Based on Three-Phase Characteristics	p. 629
8.9 Additional Information from Dips and Interruptions	p. 629
8.10 Transients	p. 635
8.10.1 Extracting Transient Component	p. 636
8.10.2 Transients: Single-Event Indices	p. 644
8.10.3 Transients in Three Phases	p. 656
8.10.4 Additional Information from Transients	p. 666
8.11 Summary and Conclusions	p. 673
9 Event Classification	p. 677
9.1 Overview of Machine Data Learning Methods for Event Classification	p. 677
9.2 Typical Steps Used in Classification System	p. 679
9.2.1 Feature Extraction	p. 679
9.2.2 Feature Optimization	p. 680
9.2.3 Selection of Topologies or Architectures for Classifiers	p. 684
9.2.4 Supervised/Unsupervised Learning	p. 685
9.2.5 Cross-Validation	p. 685
9.2.6 Classification	p. 685
9.3 Learning Machines Using Linear Discriminants	p. 686
9.4 Learning and Classification Using Probability Distributions	p. 686
9.4.1 Hypothesis Tests and Decision Trees	p. 689
9.4.2 Neyman-Pearson Approach	p. 689
9.4.3 Bayesian Approach	p. 694
9.4.4 Bayesian Belief Networks	p. 696
9.4.5 Example of Sequential Classification of Fault-Induced Voltage Dips	p. 699
9.5 Learning and Classification Using Artificial Neural Networks	p. 702
9.5.1 Multilayer Perceptron Classifiers	p. 702
9.5.2 Radial-Basis Function Networks	p. 706
9.5.3 Applications to Classification of Power System Disturbances	p. 711
9.6 Learning and Classification Using Support Vector Machines	p. 712
9.6.1 Why Use a Support Vector Machine for Classification?	p. 712
9.6.2 SVMs and Generalization Error	p. 712
9.6.3 Case 1: SVMs for Linearly Separable Patterns	p. 715
9.6.4 Case 2: Soft-Margin SVMs for Linearly Nonseparable Patterns	p. 717
9.6.5 Selecting Kernels for SVMs and Mercer's Condition	p. 719
9.6.6 Implementation Issues and Practical Examples of SVMs	p. 721
9.6.7 Example of Detecting Voltage Dips Due to Faults	p. 723
9.7 Rule-Based Expert Systems for Classification of Power System Events	p. 726
9.7.1 Structure and Rules of Expert Systems	p. 726
9.7.2 Application of Expert Systems to Event Classification	p. 728
9.8 Summary and Conclusions	p. 730
10 Event Statistics	p. 735
10.1 Interruptions	p. 735
10.1.1 Interruption Statistics	p. 735
10.1.2 IEEE Standard 1366	p. 737
10.1.3 Transmission System Indices	p. 742
10.1.4 Major Events	p. 745
10.2 Voltage Dips: Site Indices	p. 748
10.2.1 Residual Voltage and Duration Data	p. 748
10.2.2 Scatter Plot	p. 750
10.2.3 Density and Distribution Functions	p. 752
10.2.4 Two-Dimensional Distributions	p. 755
10.2.5 SARFI Indices	p. 761
10.2.6 Single-Index Methods	p. 763
10.2.7 Year-to-Year Variations	p. 766
10.2.8 Comparison Between Phase-Ground and Phase-Phase Measurements	p. 771
10.3 Voltage Dips: Time Aggregation	p. 775
10.3.1 Need for Time Aggregation	p. 775
10.3.2 Time Between Events	p. 777
10.3.3 Chains of Events for Four Different Sites	p. 780
10.3.4 Impact on Site Indices	p. 786
10.4 Voltage Dips: System Indices	p. 788
10.4.1 Scatter Plots	p. 789
10.4.2 Distribution Functions	p. 790
10.4.3 Contour Charts	p. 792
10.4.4 Seasonal Variations	p. 793
10.4.5 Voltage-Dip Tables	p. 794
10.4.6 Effect of Time Aggregation on Voltage-Dip Tables	p. 796
10.4.7 SARFI Indices	p. 800
10.4.8 Single-Index Methods	p. 803
10.5 Summary and Conclusions	p. 804
10.5.1 Interruptions	p. 804
10.5.2 Voltage Dips	p. 805
10.5.3 Time Aggregation	p. 807
10.5.4 Stochastic Prediction Methods	p. 808
10.5.5 Other Events	p. 809
11 Conclusions	p. 811
11.1 Events and Variations	p. 811
11.2 Power Quality Variations	p. 812
11.3 Power Quality Events	p. 813
11.4 Itemization of Power Quality	p. 816
11.5 Signal-Processing Needs	p. 816
11.5.1 Variations	p. 817
11.5.2 Variations and Events	p. 818
11.5.3 Events	p. 818
11.5.4 Event Classification	p. 819
Appendix A IEC Standards on Power Quality	p. 821
Appendix B IEEE Standards on Power Quality	p. 825
Bibliography	p. 829
Index	p. 849

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