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Summary
Summary
The sixth edition of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching offers new ways of viewing and teaching second language acquisition (SLA) based on the latest research. Providing a comprehensive overview of the theoretical viewpoints that have shaped language teaching today, the text explains the pedagogical relevance of SLA research in reader-friendly prose.
The new edition of this classic text, used by teacher-education programs worldwide, reflects the most recent themes in SLA research, updated references, and a summation of current issues and perspectives. The text is available in print and eText formats.
Features
New opening vignettes connect chapter topics to language learners' stories.
Expanded Classroom Connections section provides more opportunities to link research findings to teaching implications.
Updated activities and discussion questions for practicing instrctuctors and teachers in training.
End-of-chapter supplementary readings, journal-writing guidelines, activities, and discussion questions.
Bibliography with quick access to important works in the field.
Concise glossary of key terminology.
Author Notes
Dr. H. Douglas Brown, professor emeritus in the MA-TESOL program at San Francisco State University, has written books and articles on language pedagogy, language assessment, and second language acquisition. A past president of TESOL and recipient of TESOL's Alatis Award for Distinguished Service, Dr. Brown is a frequent speaker and presenter to English language teacher audiences around the world.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xi |
Chapter 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching | p. 1 |
Questions about SLA | p. 2 |
Learner Characteristics | p. 2 |
Linguistic Factors | p. 3 |
Learning Processes | p. 3 |
Age and Acquisition | p. 3 |
Classroom Instruction | p. 3 |
Context | p. 4 |
Purpose | p. 4 |
Rejoicing in Our Defeats | p. 4 |
Language | p. 6 |
Learning and Teaching | p. 8 |
Three Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition | p. 9 |
Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology | p. 9 |
Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology | p. 10 |
Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach | p. 12 |
Nineteen Centuries of Language Teaching | p. 15 |
Language Teaching in the Twentieth Century | p. 16 |
Suggested Readings | p. 18 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 1 | p. 19 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussions (D) | p. 20 |
Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition | p. 21 |
Theories of First Language Acquisition | p. 22 |
Behavioral Approaches | p. 23 |
Challenges to Behavioral Approaches | p. 25 |
The Nativist Approach | p. 26 |
Challenges to Nativist Approaches | p. 28 |
Functional Approaches | p. 30 |
Cognition and Language Development | p. 31 |
Social Interaction and Language Development | p. 32 |
Issues in First Language Acquisition | p. 33 |
Competence and Performance | p. 33 |
Comprehension and Production | p. 37 |
Nature or Nurture? | p. 38 |
Universals | p. 39 |
Systematicity and Variability | p. 41 |
Language and Thought | p. 41 |
Imitation | p. 42 |
Practice and Frequency | p. 44 |
Input | p. 45 |
Discourse | p. 46 |
L1-Acquisition-Inspired Methods | p. 47 |
Suggested Readings | p. 48 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 2 | p. 49 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 49 |
Chapter 3 Age and Acquisition | p. 51 |
Dispelling Myths | p. 51 |
Types of Comparison and Contrast | p. 53 |
The Critical Period Hypothesis: The Younger the Better? | p. 54 |
Neurobiological Considerations | p. 55 |
Hemispheric Lateralization | p. 55 |
Biological Timetables | p. 56 |
Anthropological Evidence | p. 57 |
The Significance of Accent | p. 58 |
Cognitive Considerations | p. 60 |
Affective Considerations | p. 63 |
Linguistic Considerations | p. 66 |
Bilingualism | p. 66 |
Interference Between First and Second Languages | p. 67 |
Order of Acquisition | p. 67 |
Issues in First Language Acquisition Revisited | p. 70 |
Competence and Performance | p. 70 |
Comprehension and Production | p. 70 |
Nature or Nurture? | p. 70 |
Universals | p. 71 |
Systematicity and Variability | p. 71 |
Language and Thought | p. 71 |
Imitation | p. 72 |
Practice and Frequency | p. 72 |
Input | p. 72 |
Discourse | p. 72 |
Age-and-Acquisition-Inspired Teaching Methods | p. 73 |
Total Physical Response | p. 73 |
The Natural Approach | p. 74 |
Suggested Readings | p. 75 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 3 | p. 76 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 76 |
Chapter 4 Human Learning | p. 78 |
Behavioral Perspectives | p. 79 |
Cognitive Perspectives | p. 82 |
Learning as Meaningful Storage and Retrieval | p. 83 |
Systematic Forgetting and Cognitive "Pruning" | p. 85 |
Cognitive Linguistics | p. 88 |
Social-Constructivist Perspectives | p. 89 |
Carl Rogers | p. 89 |
Paolo Freire | p. 90 |
Lev Vygotsky | p. 91 |
Fundamental Concepts in Human Learning | p. 93 |
Types of Learning | p. 93 |
Transfer and Interference | p. 94 |
Overgeneralization | p. 96 |
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning | p. 97 |
Language Aptitude | p. 98 |
Intelligence and Language Learning | p. 101 |
Learning Theories in the Classroom: ALM & CLL | p. 103 |
The Audiolingual Method | p. 104 |
Community Language Learning | p. 104 |
Suggested Readings | p. 106 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 4 | p. 107 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 108 |
Chapter 5 Individual Differences | p. 109 |
Some Historical Background | p. 110 |
Learning Styles | p. 111 |
Field Independence and Field Sensitivity | p. 114 |
Left-Brain and Right-Brain Dominance | p. 116 |
Ambiguity Tolerance | p. 117 |
Reflectivity and Impulsivity | p. 119 |
Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles | p. 120 |
Measurement of Learning Styles | p. 120 |
Autonomy and Awareness | p. 121 |
Self-Regulation | p. 123 |
Strategies | p. 124 |
Cognitive Strategies | p. 125 |
Affective Strategies | p. 126 |
Sociocultural-Interactive Strategies | p. 126 |
Compensatory Strategies | p. 128 |
Research on Learning Strategies | p. 130 |
Identifying Types of Strategy | p. 130 |
Cross-Cultural Issues | p. 131 |
Measuring Strategy Use | p. 131 |
The Effectiveness of strategy Instruction | p. 132 |
Strategies-Based Instruction | p. 132 |
Stimulating Awareness | p. 133 |
From Awareness to Action | p. 133 |
From Classroom Action to Autonomy | p. 136 |
Suggested Readings | p. 138 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 5 | p. 138 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 139 |
Chapter 6 Affective Factors | p. 141 |
The Affective Domain | p. 142 |
Affective Factors in SLA | p. 143 |
Self-Esteem | p. 144 |
Attribution Theory and Self-Efficacy | p. 145 |
Willingness to Communicate | p. 146 |
Inhibition | p. 147 |
Risk Taking | p. 149 |
Anxiety | p. 150 |
Empathy | p. 153 |
Extroversion and Introversion | p. 154 |
Personality Type | p. 156 |
Motivation | p. 158 |
Defining Motivation | p. 159 |
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation | p. 160 |
Social-Psychological Perspectives | p. 162 |
Instrumental and Integrative Orientations | p. 162 |
Motivational Intensity | p. 163 |
Other Orientations | p. 164 |
Sociodynamic and Constructivist Approaches | p. 164 |
The Neurobiology of Affect | p. 166 |
Measuring Affective Factors | p. 167 |
Classroom Applications: Intrinsic Motivation | p. 169 |
Suggested Readings | p. 171 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 6 | p. 171 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 172 |
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Identity | p. 174 |
Defining Culture | p. 174 |
Cultural Parameters | p. 176 |
Stereotypes | p. 178 |
Language, Thought, and Culture | p. 180 |
Framing Our Conceptual Universe | p. 180 |
Linguistic Relativity | p. 183 |
Communities of Practice | p. 184 |
Identity and Language Learning | p. 185 |
Historical Landmarks in Cross-Cultural Research | p. 186 |
Acculturation and Culture Shock | p. 187 |
Social Distance | p. 188 |
Attitudes | p. 191 |
Ideology, Policy, and Politics | p. 191 |
English as an International Lingua Franca | p. 192 |
"Second" and "Foreign" Language Acquisition | p. 194 |
Linguistic Imperialism and Language Rights | p. 195 |
Language Policy | p. 196 |
Teaching Intercultural Competence | p. 196 |
Intercultural Language Learning | p. 198 |
Classroom Applications: Tips for Teaching Culture | p. 200 |
Suggested Readings | p. 201 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 7 | p. 202 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 203 |
Chapter 8 Communicative Competence | p. 205 |
Defining Communicative Competence | p. 206 |
BICS and CALP | p. 206 |
Canale and Swain's Framework | p. 208 |
Later Modifications of CC Models | p. 209 |
Language Functions | p. 211 |
Speech Acts | p. 211 |
Halliday's Seven Functions of Language | p. 212 |
Functional Approaches to Language Teaching | p. 214 |
Interactional Competence | p. 216 |
Discourse Analysis | p. 217 |
Conversation Analysis | p. 219 |
Styles | p. 221 |
Written Discourse: Intercultural Rhetoric | p. 223 |
Pragmatics | p. 225 |
Sociopragmatics and Pragmalinguistics | p. 226 |
Language and Gender | p. 227 |
Corpus Analysis | p. 229 |
Nonverbal Communication | p. 231 |
Kinesics | p. 232 |
Eye Contact | p. 233 |
Facial Expressions | p. 233 |
Proxemics | p. 233 |
Artifacts | p. 234 |
Kinesthetics | p. 234 |
Olfactory Dimensions | p. 234 |
Classroom Applications: CLT and Task-Based Language Teaching | p. 235 |
Communicative Language Teaching | p. 235 |
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) | p. 237 |
Suggested Readings | p. 238 |
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 8 | p. 239 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 240 |
Chapter 9 Interlanguage | p. 242 |
Learner Language | p. 243 |
Stages of Learner Language Development | p. 244 |
Variation in Learner Language | p. 246 |
Learner's Errors: Windows of Opportunity | p. 248 |
Mistakes versus Errors | p. 249 |
Error Analysis | p. 250 |
Identifying and Describing Errors | p. 251 |
Sources of Difficulty | p. 254 |
L1 Transfer | p. 254 |
The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis | p. 254 |
Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI) | p. 256 |
Universals and Markedness | p. 258 |
Intralingual Transfer | p. 260 |
Context of Learning | p. 260 |
Strategies of Communication | p. 262 |
Input and Frequency | p. 262 |
Fossilization | p. 264 |
Error Treatment: Focus on Form | p. 267 |
Historical Notes | p. 267 |
Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) | p. 269 |
Categories of Feedback | p. 271 |
Types | p. 272 |
Responses to Feedback | p. 273 |
Effectiveness of FFI | p. 274 |
1 Is FFI beneficial? | p. 274 |
2 When should FonF take place? | p. 274 |
3 Are certain types of FonF more effective than others? | p. 274 |
4 Is FFI also effective in improving writing? | p. 275 |
5 Does frequency make a difference? | p. 275 |
6 Do some students benefit more than others from FFI? | p. 276 |
Suggested Readings | p. 276 |
Language Learning Experience Journal Entry 9 | p. 277 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 278 |
Chapter 10 Sorting through Perspectives on SLA | p. 279 |
Weaving a Tapestry of "Perspectives" on SLA | p. 281 |
Carlos Yorio's (1976) Learner Variables | p. 282 |
Patsy Lightbown's (1985) Hypotheses | p. 283 |
Nick Ellis's (2007) Observed Findings in SLA | p. 285 |
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching | p. 286 |
Six Perspectives on SLA | p. 286 |
Maturation-Based Approaches | p. 288 |
The Input Hypothesis | p. 288 |
Criticisms of the Input Hypothesis | p. 289 |
Universal Grammar (UG) | p. 290 |
Emergentism | p. 291 |
Other Related Issues | p. 291 |
Cognitive Models | p. 292 |
An Attention-Processing Model | p. 292 |
Implicit and Explicit Processing | p. 294 |
Systematicity and Variability | p. 295 |
Sociocultural Viewpoints | p. 295 |
Mediation and the ZPD | p. 295 |
Long's Interaction Hypothesis | p. 296 |
Social Constructivist Views | p. 297 |
Identity Approaches | p. 297 |
Ecological Viewpoints | p. 298 |
Sociocognitive Approaches | p. 299 |
Skill Acquisition Theory | p. 300 |
A Horticultural Metaphor of SLA | p. 300 |
Dynamic Systems Theory | p. 303 |
Some Final Comments | p. 305 |
Theory to Practice or Cooperative Dialogue? | p. 306 |
The Believing Game and the Doubting Game | p. 307 |
The Art and Science of SLA | p. 308 |
The Role of Intuition | p. 308 |
Suggested Readings | p. 310 |
Language Learning Experience: Final Journal Entry | p. 310 |
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) | p. 311 |
Bibliography | p. 313 |
Glossary | p. 369 |
Name Index | p. 384 |
Subject Index | p. 391 |