Core level spectroscopy of solids

Core level spectroscopy has become a powerful tool in the study of electronic states in solids. From fundamental aspects to the most recent developments, Core Level Spectroscopy of Solids presents the theoretical calculations, experimental data, and underlying physics of x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS), x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD), and resonant x-ray emission spectroscopy (RXES).

Starting with the basic aspects of core level spectroscopy, the book explains the many-body effects in XPS and XAS as well as several theories. After forming this foundation, the authors explore more advanced features of XPS, XAS, XMCD, and RXES. Topics discussed include hard XPS, resonant photoemission, spin polarization, electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS). The authors also use the charge transfer multiplet theory to interpret core level spectroscopy for transition metal and rare earth metal systems.

Pioneers in the theoretical and experimental developments of this field, Frank de Groot and Akio Kotani provide an invaluable treatise on the numerous aspects of core level spectroscopy that involve solids.

Preface	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Authors	p. xix
Chapter 1 Introduction	p. 1
Chapter 2 Fundamental Aspects of Core Level Spectroscopies	p. 11
2.1 Core Holes	p. 11
2.1.1 Creation of Core Holes	p. 11
2.1.2 Decay of Core Holes	p. 12
2.2 Overview of Core Level Spectroscopies	p. 14
2.2.1 Core Hole Spin-Orbit Splitting	p. 14
2.2.2 Core Hole Excitation Spectroscopies	p. 15
2.2.3 Core Hole Decay Spectroscopies	p. 18
2.2.4 Resonant Photoelectron Processes	p. 19
2.2.5 Resonant X-Ray Emission Channels	p. 22
2.2.6 Overview of the RXES and NXES Transitions	p. 23
2.3 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter	p. 25
2.3.1 Electromagnetic Field	p. 26
2.3.2 Transition to Quantum Mechanics	p. 26
2.3.3 Interaction Hamiltonian	p. 27
2.3.4 Golden Rule	p. 27
2.4 Optical Transition Operators and X-Ray Absorption Spectra	p. 28
2.4.1 Electric Dipole Transitions	p. 29
2.4.2 Electric Quadrupole Transitions	p. 29
2.4.3 Dipole Selection Rules	p. 29
2.4.4 Transition Probabilities, Cross Sections, and Oscillator Strengths	p. 30
2.4.5 Cross Section, Penetration Depth, and Excitation Frequency	p. 31
2.4.6 X-Ray Attenuation Lengths	p. 32
2.5 Interaction of Electrons with Matter	p. 32
2.6 X-Ray Sources	p. 34
2.6.1 Synchrotron Radiation Sources	p. 34
2.6.2 X-Ray Beamlines and Monochromators	p. 35
2.6.3 Other X-Ray Sources	p. 36
2.7 Electron Sources	p. 37
Chapter 3 Many-Body Charge-Transfer Effects in XPS and XAS	p. 39
3.1 Introduction	p. 39
3.2 Many-Body Charge-Transfer Effects in XPS	p. 40
3.2.1 Basic Description of the XPS Process	p. 40
3.3 General Expressions of Many-Body Effects	p. 42
3.3.1 General Description	p. 42
3.3.2 Generating Function and Dielectric Response	p. 44
3.3.3 XPS Spectrum and Its Limiting Forms	p. 45
3.3.3.1 Slow Modulation Limit	p. 47
3.3.3.2 Rapid Modulation Limit	p. 47
3.4 General Effects in XPS Spectra	p. 47
3.4.1 Screening by Free-Electron-Like Conduction Electrons	p. 47
3.4.2 Screening by Lattice Relaxation Effects	p. 49
3.4.3 Shake-Up Satellites	p. 50
3.4.4 Lifetime Effects	p. 50
3.4.4.1 Auger Transition	p. 50
3.4.4.2 Radiative Transition	p. 51
3.5 Typical Examples of XPS Spectra	p. 52
3.5.1 Simple Metals	p. 52
3.5.2 La Metal	p. 56
3.5.2.1 Final State of Type (A)	p. 59
3.5.2.2 Final State of Type (B)	p. 60
3.5.3 Mixed Valence State in Ce Intermetallic Compounds	p. 62
3.5.4 Insulating Mixed Valence Ce Compounds	p. 67
3.5.5 Transition Metal Compounds	p. 71
3.5.5.1 Model	p. 71
3.5.5.2 Simplified Analysis	p. 72
3.5.5.3 Case A: [Delta subscript f] > 0 ([Delta] > U[subscript dc])	p. 74
3.5.5.4 Case B: [Delta subscript f] [less than or equal] 0 ([Delta] [less than or equal] U[subscript dc])	p. 74
3.6 Many-Body Charge-Transfer Effects in XAS	p. 76
3.6.1 General Expressions of Many-Body Effects	p. 76
3.6.2 XAS in Simple Metals	p. 76
3.6.3 XAS in La Metal	p. 78
3.6.3.1 Case A: [epsilon subscript f]	p. 79
3.6.3.2 Case B: [epsilon subscript f] > [epsilon subscript F]	p. 80
3.6.4 Ce 3d XAS of Mixed Valence Ce Compounds	p. 81
3.6.5 Ce L[subscript 3] XAS	p. 83
3.6.6 XAS in Transition Metal Compounds	p. 87
3.7 Comparison of XPS and XAS	p. 89
Chapter 4 Charge Transfer Multiplet Theory	p. 93
4.1 Introduction	p. 93
4.2 Atomic Multiplet Theory	p. 95
4.2.1 Term Symbols	p. 96
4.2.2 Some Simple Coupling Schemes	p. 98
4.2.3 Term Symbols of d-Electrons	p. 101
4.2.4 Matrix Elements	p. 105
4.2.5 Energy Levels of Two d-Electrons	p. 107
4.2.6 More Than Two Electrons	p. 108
4.2.7 Matrix Elements of the 2p[superscript 3] Configuration	p. 109
4.2.8 Hund's Rules	p. 110
4.2.9 Final State Effects of Atomic Multiplets	p. 111
4.3 Ligand Field Multiplet Theory	p. 115
4.3.1 Ligand Field Multiplet Hamiltonian	p. 116
4.3.2 Cubic Crystal Fields	p. 117
4.3.3 Definitions of the Crystal Field Parameters	p. 119
4.3.4 Energies of the 3d[superscript n] Configurations	p. 120
4.3.5 Symmetry Effects in D[subscript 4h] Symmetry	p. 124
4.3.6 Effect of the 3d Spin-Orbit Coupling	p. 125
4.3.7 Consequences of Reduced Symmetry	p. 126
4.3.8 3d[superscript 0] Systems in Octahedral Symmetry	p. 126
4.3.9 Ab Initio LFM Calculations	p. 132
4.4 Charge Transfer Multiplet Theory	p. 133
4.4.1 Initial State Effects	p. 134
4.4.2 Final State Effects	p. 137
4.4.3 XAS Spectrum with Charge-Transfer Effects	p. 138
4.4.4 Small Charge-Transfer Satellites in 2p XAS	p. 140
4.4.5 Large Charge-Transfer Satellites in 2p XPS	p. 141
4.4.5.1 3d[superscript 0] Compounds	p. 142
4.4.5.2 3d[superscript 8] Compounds	p. 143
Chapter 5 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy	p. 145
5.1 Introduction	p. 145
5.2 Experimental Aspects	p. 146
5.3 XPS of TM Compounds	p. 146
5.3.1 2p XPS	p. 146
5.3.2 Zaanen-Sawatzky-Allen Diagram	p. 152
5.3.3 2p XPS in Early TM Systems	p. 154
5.3.4 Effect of Multiplet Coupling on [Delta] and U[subscript dd]	p. 158
5.3.5 3s XPS	p. 160
5.3.6 3p XPS	p. 164
5.4 XPS of RE Compounds	p. 165
5.4.1 Simplified Analysis for RE Oxides	p. 165
5.4.2 Application of Charge-Transfer Multiplet Theory	p. 169
5.5 Resonant Photoemission Spectroscopy	p. 176
5.5.1 Fundamental Aspects of RPES	p. 177
5.5.2 RPES in Ni Metal and TM Compounds	p. 180
5.5.2.1 3p RPES in Ni Metal	p. 180
5.5.2.2 2p RPES in TM Compounds	p. 182
5.5.2.3 3p RPES in NiO	p. 185
5.5.3 3d and 4d RPES of Ce Compounds	p. 185
5.5.4 Resonant XPS	p. 187
5.5.5 Resonant Auger Electron Spectroscopy	p. 188
5.5.6 Reducing the Lifetime Broadening in XAS	p. 191
5.5.7 EQ and ED Excitations in the Pre-Edge of Ti 1s XAS of TiO[subscript 2]	p. 191
5.6 Hard X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy	p. 197
5.6.1 2p HAXPS of Cuprates	p. 197
5.6.2 2p HAXPS of V[subscript 2]O[subscript 3] and La[subscript 1-x]Sr[subscript x]MnO[subscript 3]	p. 198
5.6.3 Ce Compounds: Surface/Bulk Sensitivity	p. 199
5.6.4 Resonant HAXPS of Ce Compounds	p. 202
5.7 Resonant Inverse Photoemission Spectroscopy	p. 205
5.8 Nonlocal Screening Effect in XPS	p. 212
5.9 Auger Photoemission Coincidence Spectroscopy	p. 218
5.10 Spin-Polarization and Magnetic Dichroism in XPS	p. 221
5.10.1 Spin-Polarized Photoemission	p. 221
5.10.2 Spin-Polarized Circular Dichroic Resonant Photoemission	p. 221
Chapter 6 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy	p. 225
6.1 Basics of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy	p. 225
6.1.1 Metal L[subscript 2,3] Edges	p. 228
6.2 Experimental Aspects	p. 228
6.2.1 Transmission Detection	p. 229
6.2.2 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Absorption	p. 229
6.2.3 Fluorescence Yield	p. 229
6.2.4 Self-Absorption Effects in Fluorescence Yield Detection	p. 230
6.2.5 Nonlinear Decay Ratios and Distortions in Fluorescence Yield Spectra	p. 230
6.2.6 Partial Fluorescence Yield	p. 230
6.2.7 Electron Yield	p. 231
6.2.8 Partial Electron Yield	p. 231
6.2.9 Ion Yield	p. 232
6.2.10 Detection of an EELS Spectrum	p. 232
6.2.11 Low-Energy EELS Experiments	p. 233
6.2.12 Space: X-Ray Spectromicroscopy and TEM-EELS	p. 233
6.2.13 Time-Resolved X-Ray Absorption	p. 234
6.2.14 Extreme Conditions	p. 235
6.3 L[subscript 2,3] Edges of 3d TM Systems	p. 235
6.3.1 3d[superscript 0] Systems	p. 236
6.3.2 3d[superscript 1] Systems	p. 237
6.3.2.1 VO[subscript 2] and LaTiO[subscript 3]	p. 237
6.3.3 3d[superscript 2] Systems	p. 237
6.3.4 3d[superscript 3] Systems	p. 238
6.3.5 3d[superscript 4] Systems	p. 239
6.3.5.1 LaMnO[subscript 3]	p. 240
6.3.5.2 Mixed Spin Ground State in LiMnO[subscript 2]	p. 240
6.3.6 3d[superscript 5] Systems	p. 241
6.3.6.1 MnO	p. 241
6.3.6.2 Fe[subscript 2]O[subscript 3]	p. 242
6.3.6.3 Fe[superscript 3+](tacn)[subscript 2]	p. 243
6.3.6.4 Fe[superscript 3+](CN)[subscript 6]	p. 243
6.3.6.5 Intermediate Spin State of SrCoO[subscript 3]	p. 244
6.3.7 3d[superscript 6] Systems	p. 245
6.3.7.1 Effect of 3d Spin-Orbit Coupling in Fe[subscript 2]SiO[subscript 4]	p. 246
6.3.7.2 Co[superscript 3+] Oxides	p. 247
6.3.8 3d[superscript 7] Systems	p. 248
6.3.8.1 Effects of 3d Spin-Orbit Coupling on the Ground State of Co[superscript 2+]	p. 248
6.3.8.2 Mixed Spin Ground State in PrNiO[subscript 3]	p. 249
6.3.9 3d[superscript 8] Systems	p. 251
6.3.9.1 NiO	p. 251
6.3.9.2 High-Spin and Low-Spin Ni[superscript 2+] and Cu[superscript 3+] Systems	p. 251
6.3.10 3d[superscript 9] Systems	p. 253
6.4 Other X-Ray Absorption Spectra of the 3d TM Systems	p. 254
6.4.1 TM M[subscript 2,3] Edges	p. 254
6.4.2 TM M[subscript 1] Edges	p. 255
6.4.3 TM K Edges	p. 255
6.4.4 Ligand K Edges	p. 260
6.4.4.1 Oxygen K Edges of High T[subscript c] Copper Oxides	p. 264
6.4.5 Soft X-Ray K Edges by X-Ray Raman Spectroscopy	p. 264
6.4.5.1 Modifying the Selection Rules	p. 265
6.5 X-Ray Absorption Spectra of the 4d and 5d TM Systems	p. 265
6.5.1 L[subscript 2,3] Edges of 4d TM Systems	p. 266
6.5.2 Picosecond Time-Resolved 2p XAS Spectra of [Ru(bpy) subscript 3 superscript 2+]	p. 268
6.5.3 Higher Valent Ruthenium Compounds	p. 269
6.5.4 Pd L Edges and the Number of 4d Holes in Pd Metal	p. 270
6.5.5 X-Ray Absorption Spectra of the 5d Transition Metals	p. 271
6.6 X-Ray Absorption Spectra of the 4f RE and 5f Actinide Systems	p. 272
6.6.1 M[subscript 4,5] Edges of Rare Earths	p. 273
6.6.1.1 M[subscript 4,5] Edge of Tm	p. 274
6.6.1.2 M[subscript 4,5] Edge of La[superscript 3+]	p. 277
6.6.1.3 M[subscript 4,5] Edge of CeO[subscript 2]	p. 278
6.6.2 N[subscript 4,5] Edges of Rare Earths	p. 278
6.6.3 L[subscript 2,3] Edges of Rare Earths	p. 281
6.6.4 O[subscript 4,5] Edges of Actinides	p. 282
6.6.5 M[subscript 4,5] Edges of Actinides	p. 282
Chapter 7 X-Ray Magnetic Circular Dichroism	p. 287
7.1 Introduction	p. 287
7.2 XMCD Effects in the L[subscript 2,3] Edges of TM Ions and Compounds	p. 288
7.2.1 Atomic Single Electron Model	p. 288
7.2.2 XMCD Effects in Ni[superscript 2+]	p. 293
7.2.3 XMCD of CrO[subscript 2]	p. 297
7.2.4 Magnetic X-Ray Linear Dichroism	p. 297
7.2.5 Orientation Dependence of XMCD and XMLD Effects	p. 298
7.2.6 XMLD for Doped LaMnO[subscript 3] Systems	p. 299
7.3 Sum Rules	p. 299
7.3.1 Sum Rules for Orbital and Spin Moments	p. 299
7.3.2 Application of the Sum Rules to Fe and Co Metals	p. 302
7.3.3 Application of the Sum Rules to Au/Co-Nanocluster/Au Systems	p. 304
7.3.4 Limitations of the Sum Rules	p. 308
7.3.5 Theoretical Simulations of the Spin Sum Rule	p. 309
7.4 XMCD Effects in the K Edges of Transition Metals	p. 310
7.4.1 X-Ray Natural Circular Dichroism and X-Ray Optical Activity	p. 311
7.5 XMCD Effects in the M Edges of Rare Earths	p. 312
7.5.1 XMCD and XMLD Effects from Atomic Multiplets	p. 312
7.5.2 Temperature Effects on the XMCD and XMLD	p. 314
7.6 XMCD Effects in the L Edges of Rare Earth Systems	p. 314
7.6.1 Effects of 4f5d Exchange Interaction	p. 315
7.6.2 Contribution of Electric Quadrupole Transition	p. 319
7.6.3 Effect of Hybridization between RE 5d and TM 3d States	p. 319
7.6.4 XMCD at L Edges of R[subscript 2]Fe[subscript 14]B (R = La-Lu)	p. 320
7.6.5 Mixed Valence Compound CeFe[subscript 2]	p. 324
7.6.6 Multielectron Excitations	p. 328
7.7 Applications of XMCD	p. 329
7.7.1 Magnetic Oxides	p. 329
7.7.2 Thin Magnetic (Multi)layers, Interface, and Surface Effects	p. 330
7.7.3 Impurities, Adsorbates, and Metal Chains	p. 332
7.7.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles and Catalyst Materials	p. 333
7.7.5 Molecular Magnets	p. 333
7.7.6 Metal Centers in Proteins	p. 334
Chapter 8 Resonant X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy	p. 335
8.1 Introduction	p. 335
8.1.1 Experimental Aspects of XES (RXES and NXES)	p. 337
8.1.1.1 Detectors for Soft X-Ray XES	p. 338
8.1.1.2 Detectors for Hard X-Ray XES	p. 338
8.1.1.3 X-Ray Raman Allows Soft X-Ray XAS under Extreme Conditions	p. 338
8.1.2 Basic Description and Some Theoretical Aspects	p. 338
8.2 Rare Earth Compounds	p. 343
8.2.1 Effect of Intra-Atomic Multiplet Coupling	p. 343
8.2.2 Effect of Interatomic Hybridization in CeO[subscript 2] and PrO[subscript 2]	p. 348
8.2.3 Metallic Ce Compounds with Mixed-Valence Character	p. 351
8.2.4 Kondo Resonance in Yb Compounds	p. 354
8.2.5 Dy 2p3d RXES Detection of the 2p4f EQ Excitation	p. 357
8.2.6 EQ Excitations in Light Rare Earth Elements	p. 360
8.3 High T[subscript c] Cuprates and Related Materials	p. 363
8.3.1 Cu 2p3d RXES	p. 363
8.3.2 Cu 1s4p RXES	p. 367
8.3.3 Cu 1s2p RXES	p. 373
8.3.4 O 1s2p RXES	p. 377
8.4 Nickel and Cobalt Compounds	p. 380
8.4.1 Ni 2p3d RXES in NiO: Charge Transfer Excitations	p. 380
8.4.2 Ni 2p3d RXES in NiO: dd Excitations	p. 384
8.4.3 Ni 2p3d RXES in NiO: Spin-Flip Excitations	p. 386
8.4.4 Ni 1s4p RXES of NiO: Pressure Dependence	p. 387
8.4.5 Co 2p3d RXES in CoO and Other Co Compounds	p. 389
8.4.6 Co 1s2p RXES of CoO: Effect of Resolution	p. 389
8.4.7 Co 1s2p RXES: Nonlocal Dipole Transitions	p. 391
8.5 Iron and Manganese Compounds	p. 393
8.5.1 Fe 1s2p RXES of Iron Oxides: 2D RXES Images	p. 393
8.5.2 HERFD-XAS of Iron Oxides	p. 395
8.5.3 Fe 2p XAS Spectra Measured at the Fe K Edge	p. 397
8.5.4 Valence Selective XAS	p. 397
8.5.5 Mn 2p3d RXES of MnO	p. 399
8.5.6 Mn 2p3d RXES: Interplay of dd and Charge Transfer Excitations	p. 402
8.5.7 Mn 1s4p RXES of LaMnO[subscript 3]	p. 405
8.5.8 Mn and Ni 1s3p XES: Chemical Sensitivity	p. 406
8.5.9 Mn 1s3p XES: K Capture Versus X-Ray Ionization	p. 408
8.5.9.1 Atomic Multiplet Calculation	p. 409
8.5.9.2 LFM Calculation	p. 410
8.5.9.3 Charge Transfer Multiplet Calculation	p. 410
8.5.9.4 Coherent Calculation of Mn 1s3p NXES Spectra	p. 411
8.6 Early Transition Metal Compounds	p. 412
8.6.1 Ca 2p3s RXES in CaF[subscript 2]	p. 413
8.6.2 Ti 2p3d RXES of TiO[subscript 2]: Polarization Dependence	p. 415
8.6.3 Sc 2p3d RXES of the ScF[subscript 3], ScCl[subscript 3], and ScBr[subscript 3]	p. 420
8.6.4 TM 2p3d RXES of d[superscript n] (n = 1, 2, 3) Systems	p. 420
8.6.5 V 2p3d RXES of Vanadium Oxides	p. 423
8.7 Electron Spin States Detected by RXES and NXES	p. 423
8.7.1 Local Spin-Selective Excitation Spectra	p. 423
8.7.2 Spin-Dependent TM 1s3p NXES Spectra	p. 425
8.7.3 TM 1s3p NXES and Spin-Transitions	p. 426
8.7.4 Local-Spin Selective XAS and XMCD	p. 429
8.8 MCD in RXES of Ferromagnetic Systems	p. 429
8.8.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Geometries in MCD-RXES	p. 429
8.8.2 MCD-RXES in LG of CeFe[subscript 2]	p. 433
8.8.3 Experiments and Theory of MCD-RXES in TG	p. 435
Appendix A Precise Derivation of XPS Formula	p. 439
Appendix B Derivation of Equation 3.88 in Chapter 3	p. 443
Appendix C Fundamental Tensor Theory	p. 447
Appendix D Derivation of the Orbital Moment Sum Rule	p. 451
Appendix E Theoretical Test of the Spin Sum Rule	p. 453
Appendix F Calculations of XAS Spectra with Single Electron Excitation Models	p. 457
References	p. 463
Index	p. 483

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