Hydrogen storage technologies : new materials, transport, and infrastructure

An exploration of current and possible future hydrogen storage technologies, written from an industrial perspective. The book describes the fundamentals, taking into consideration environmental, economic and safety aspects, as well as presenting infrastructure requirements, with a special focus on hydrogen applications in production, transportation, military, stationary and mobile storage.

A comparison of the different storage technologies is also included, ranging from storage of pure hydrogen in different states, via chemical
storage right up to new materials already under development. Throughout, emphasis is placed on those technologies with the potential
for commercialization.

Author Notes

Agata Godula-Jopek is a fuel cell expert in the Department of Energy Propulsion at EADS Innovation Works (European Aeronautic Defense and Space Company), Germany. Her research interests center on fuel cells, hydrogen storage and fuel processing for fuel cells. After obtaining her academic degrees (MSc) from the Technical University in Cracow, Poland, she worked as assistant scientist in the Department of Electrochemical Oxidation of Gaseous Fuels at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Cracow, completing here her PhD. She has authored numerous scientific publications and patents.
Walter Jehle is presently a system engineer for the Department of Energy and Life Support Systems at EADS Astrium, Germany. After graduating in Chemical Engineering from the Technical University of Stuttgart, he worked for the Daimler Chrysler Institute and the EADS Innovation Works. His areas of expertise include Hydrogen Production, Hydrogen Storage and Fuel Cells. Walter Jehle has authored several scientific publications and patents.
Prof. Dr.-lng.Jrg Wellnitz is Chair and Professor of Lightweight Design and CAE and is Vice-Dean of Faculty Engineering at the University of Applied Sciences in Ingolstadt, Germany. After he studied Aviation and Space Technology in Munich, he worked as Captain and Squadroon Commander at the German Air Defence Artillery. After that, he was chief of the "Core-Competence Composites" and head of the section "Strength Powerplant System" at Rolls-Royce in Germany. Professor Jrg Wellnitz has authored numerous peer-reviewed articles and books.

1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 History/Background	p. 1
1.2 Tanks and Storage	p. 4
2 Hydrogen - Fundamentals	p. 11
2.1 Hydrogen Phase Diagram	p. 23
2.2 Hydrogen in Comparison with Other Fuels	p. 14
2.3 Hydrogen Production	p. 16
2.3.1 Reforming Processes in Combination with Fossil Fuels (Coal, Natural Gas, and Mineral Oil)	p. 18
2.3.1.1 Steam Reforming of Natural Gas	p. 19
2.3.1.2 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming of Hydrocarbons	p. 20
2.3.1.3 HyPr-RING Method to Produce Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons	p. 21
2.3.1.4 Plasma-Assisted Production of Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons	p. 23
2.3.1.5 Coal Gasification	p. 25
2.3.2 Water-Splitting Processes (Hydrogen from Water)	p. 27
2.3.2.1 Electrolysis of Water with Electricity from Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources (Low-Temperature Water Splitting)	p. 27
2.3.2.2 Different Types of Electrolyzers	p. 33
2.3.2.3 High-Temperature Water Splitting in Combination with High-Temperature Nuclear Energy and Solar Energy	p. 42
2.3.3 Hydrogen from Biomass	p. 45
2.3.3.1 Thermochemical Processes	p. 47
2.3.3.2 Biological Processes	p. 47
2.3.4 Hydrogen from Aluminum	p. 50
2.3.5 Outlook	p. 51
2.4 Hydrogen Storage Safety Aspects	p. 53
2.4.1 Hydrogen Properties Related to Safety	p. 55
2.4.2 Selected Incidents with Hydrogen	p. 61
2.4.3 Human Health Impact	p. 62
2.4.4 Sensors	p. 63
2.4.5 Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS)	p. 63
2.4.6 Safety Aspects in the Hydrogen Chain from Production to the User	p. 65
2.4.6.1 Hydrogen Production	p. 66
2.4.6.2 Hydrogen Refuelling Stations	p. 67
2.4.6.3 Storage/Transportation (Compressed/Liquid/Metal Hydride)	p. 68
2.4.6.4 Garage for Repairing Cars	p. 70
2.4.7 Safety Aspects of Hydrogen Vehicles	p. 70
2.4.8 Safe Removal of Hydrogen	p. 73
References	p. 73
3 Hydrogen Application: Infrastructural Requirements	p. 81
3.1 Transportation	p. 81
3.2 Filling Stations	p. 86
3.3 Distribution	p. 87
3.4 Military	p. 89
3.5 Portables	p. 92
3.6 Infrastructure Requirements	p. 93
References	p. 96
Further Reading	p. 96
4 Storage of Pure Hydrogen in Different States	p. 97
4.1 Purification of Hydrogen	p. 97
4.2 Compressed Hydrogen	p. 98
4.2.1 Properties	p. 98
4.2.2 Compression	p. 98
4.2.2.1 Mechanical Compressors	p. 100
4.2.2.2 Nonmechanical Compressor	p. 101
4.2.3 Materials	p. 106
4.2.3.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement	p. 106
4.2.3.2 Hydrogen Attack	p. 107
4.2.3.3 Hydrogen Permeation	p. 107
4.2.3.4 Used Structural Materials	p. 108
4.2.3.5 Used Materials for Sealing and Liners	p. 109
4.2.3.6 High Pressure Metal Hydride Storage Tank	p. 109
4.2.4 Sensors, Instrumentation	p. 110
4.2.5 Tank Filling	p. 110
4.2.6 Applications	p. 111
4.2.6.1 Storage in Underground	p. 111
4.2.6.2 Road and Rail Transportation	p. 112
4.2.6.3 Vehicles	p. 112
4.3 Liquid/Slush Hydrogen	p. 114
4.3.1 Properties	p. 114
4.3.2 Ortho Para Conversion	p. 114
4.3.3 Liquefaction	p. 116
4.3.3.1 Linde Process	p. 116
4.3.3.2 Claude Process	p. 117
4.3.3.3 Collins Process	p. 117
4.3.3.4 Joule-Brayton Cycle	p. 118
4.3.3.5 Magnetic Liquefaction	p. 118
4.3.3.6 Thermoacoustic Liquefaction	p. 120
4.3.4 Hydrogen Slush	p. 120
4.3.5 Boil-Off	p. 121
4.3.5.1 Zero Boil-Off Solutions	p. 122
4.3.6 Materials	p. 123
4.3.6.1 Tank Material	p. 123
4.3.6.2 Insulation	p. 123
4.3.6.3 Braze Materials	p. 124
4.3.7 Sensors, Instrumentation	p. 124
4.3.8 Applications	p. 125
4.3.8.1 Storage	p. 125
4.3.8.2 Sea Transportation	p. 126
4.3.8.3 Road and Rail Transportation	p. 126
4.3.8.4 Vehicles	p. 127
4.3.8.5 Aircraft	p. 130
4.3.8.6 Rockets	p. 131
4.3.8.7 Solar Power Plants	p. 131
4.4 Metal Hydrides	p. 131
4.4.1 Classical Metal Hydrides	p. 135
4.4.1 1 Intermetallic Hydrides (Heavy Metal Hydrides)	p. 135
4.4.1.2 Magnesium-Based Hydrides	p. 137
4.4.2 Light Metal Complex Hydrides	p. 139
4.4.2.1 Alanates	p. 139
4.4.2.2 Amides-Imides (Li 3 N-Li 2 NH-LiNH 2 )	p. 143
4.4.2.3 Borohydrides	p. 146
4.4.3 Application	p. 149
4.4.4 Outlook	p. 163
References	p. 166
5 Chemical Storage	p. 171
5.1 Introduction	p. 171
5.2 Materials and Properties	p. 172
5.3 Hydrogen Storage in Hydrocarbons	p. 173
5.4 Hydrocarbons as Hydrogen Carrier	p. 177
5.5 Application: Automotive	p. 178
5.6 Ammonia	p. 181
5.6.1 Properties	p. 181
5.6.2 Application Areas of Ammonia	p. 182
5.6.3 Production	p. 184
5.6.3.1 Production from Nitrogen and Hydrogen	p. 184
5.6.3.2 Production from Silicon Nitride	p. 184
5.6.4 Methods for Storing Ammonia	p. 285
5.6.4.1 Liquid Dry Ammonia	p. 185
5.6.4.2 Solid-State Ammonia Storage	p. 185
5.6.5 Use of Ammonia as Fuel in High-Temperature Fuel Cells	p. 186
5.6.6 Hydrogen from Ammonia	p. 287
5.6.6.1 Ammonia Electrolysis	p. 187
5.6.6.2 Catalytic Decomposition	p. 187
5.6.7 Hydrogen from Ammonia and Metal Hydride	p. 189
5.6.8 Energetic Consideration	p. 190
5.7 Borohydrides	p. 191
5.7.1 Sodium Borohydride	p. 191
5.7.1.1 Direct Use of Sodium Borohydride as Fuel in a PEM-Based Fuel Cell	p. 191
5.7.1.2 Hydrogen Generation by Hydrolytic Release	p. 192
5.7.2 Ammonia Borane	p. 193
References	p. 194
6 Hydrogen Storage Options: Comparison	p. 197
6.1 Economic Considerations/Costs	p. 197
6.2 Safety Aspects	p. 200
6.2.1 Safety Rules and Regulations	p. 200
6.2.2 Safety Equipment	p. 205
6.3 Environmental Considerations: Waste, Hazardous Materials	p. 209
6.4 Dimension Considerations	p. 212
6.5 Sociological Considerations	p. 216
6.6 Comparison with Other Energy Storage System	p. 218
References	p. 222
7 Novel Materials	p. 225
7.1 Silicon and Hydropolysilane (HPS)	p. 225
7.2 Carbon-Based Materials - General	p. 228
7.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT), Activated Carbon (AC), Graphite Nanofibers	p. 229
7.2.2 Other High-Surface Area Materials	p. 233
7.2.3 Zeolites	p. 234
7.2.4 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)	p. 235
7.2.5 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COF)	p. 236
7.3 Microspheres	p. 239
7.3.1 Methods for Discharging	p. 244
7.3.2 Resume	p. 245
References	p. 246
Index	p. 249

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Author Notes

Table of Contents