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Summary
Summary
This book is the first to address the field of structurally integrated fiber optic sensors. Fiber optic sensors embedded within materials and systems are able to measure a variety of parameters (i.e. temperature, vibration, deformation, strain, etc.) that allows for real time non-destructive evaluation. Examples include the following: monitoring structural fatigue in aging aircraft or loads in bridge structures. In more advanced applications, fiber optic sensors control actuators that allow materials to adapt to their environment. This gives rise to the names, "smart," "intelligent," and/or "adaptive" materials or structures. Structural Monitoring with Fiber Optic Technology is the firs single author book on the new field of fiber optic structural sensing. As such it provides: coverage of the fundamentals of the technology, a coherent and systematic discussion on the most important aspects of the subject, a broad view of the subject, while retaining a degree of focus on those advances most significant in terms of their future potential, particularly in regard to broad implementation of the technology. The book provides an introduction to the relevant value to structural monitoring. It also highlights the advantages of fiber optic based sensors over conventional electrical measurement technology. The book richly illustrates the subject matter with 615 figures and provides many examples of fiber optic structural sensing, including a detailed overview of a number of major field site applications. Most of these large scale applications are drawn from the civil engineering community as they have been the first to strongly embrace fiber optic structural monitoring. This is especially true for bridges, where innovative new designs and the use of fiber reinforced polymer composite materials to replace steel represents a major advance that is expected to revolutionize the construction industry. Examples include new bridges, which are serving as testbeds for these new materials and are instrumented with arrays of fiber optic structural sensors. In one case, this state-of-the-art monitoring system permits engineers at a distant site to track the response of the bridge to traffic loads and keep an eye on the long term performance of the new materials. Fiber optic structural sensing technology is equally applicable to other industrial sectors, such as the aerospace and marine industries. Indeed, several examples of ships being instrumented with arrays of fiber optic sensors are also included.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xii |
Acknowledgments | p. xvii |
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Smart Structures | p. 3 |
1.2 Brief Historical Overview of Smart Structures | p. 9 |
2 Need for Integrated Structural Monitoring | p. 15 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 15 |
2.2 Civil Engineering Problems | p. 17 |
2.3 New Materials for the Construction Industry | p. 19 |
2.4 Bridges of Advanced Design | p. 21 |
2.5 Detection of Structural Weakness | p. 24 |
2.6 Measurement Prospects for Fiber Optic Technology | p. 26 |
2.7 Earthquakes and New Materials for Repair | p. 34 |
2.8 Other Structural Monitoring Applications | p. 40 |
2.9 Wind Power and Structural Monitoring | p. 43 |
2.10 Magnetic Levitation Train Monitoring | p. 45 |
2.11 Aerospace Engineering Problems | p. 46 |
2.12 New Materials for the Aerospace Industry | p. 48 |
2.13 Fiber Optic Monitoring of Aircraft | p. 50 |
3 Introduction to Lightwaves | p. 52 |
3.1 Background and Overview | p. 52 |
3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation | p. 56 |
3.3 Birefringence and Polarization | p. 64 |
3.4 Superposition, Coherence, and Interference | p. 69 |
3.5 Partial Coherence and Coherence Length | p. 72 |
3.6 High-Coherence Interferometers | p. 76 |
3.7 Multipass Fabry-Perot Interferometer | p. 79 |
3.8 Low-Coherence Interferometry | p. 82 |
3.9 Radiation Coupling Between Optical Fibers | p. 86 |
3.10 Bragg Grating Reflection | p. 91 |
4 Light Sources and Detectors | p. 100 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 100 |
4.2 Light Generation and Gain Media | p. 100 |
4.3 Fabry-Perot Cavity Lasers | p. 107 |
4.4 Semiconductor Radiation Sources | p. 116 |
4.5 Light-Emitting Diodes | p. 121 |
4.6 Semiconductor Laser Diodes | p. 129 |
4.7 Narrowband (DBR and DFB) Laser Diodes | p. 138 |
4.8 Junction Photodetectors | p. 143 |
4.9 PIN and Avalanche Photodiode Detectors | p. 147 |
4.10 Charge-Coupled Detector Arrays | p. 150 |
4.11 Photodetector Signal-to-Noise | p. 154 |
5 Fiber Optic Technology | p. 160 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 160 |
5.2 Optical Fibers | p. 160 |
5.3 Optical Fiber Guided Wave Modes | p. 165 |
5.4 Cutoff Wavelength and Single-Mode Fiber | p. 170 |
5.5 Optical Fiber Transmission Properties | p. 176 |
5.6 Optical Fiber Strength and Fatigue Life | p. 181 |
5.7 Fiber Optic Connectors, Splices, and Pigtails | p. 190 |
5.8 Optical Isolators, Couplers, Filters, and Spectral Analyzers | p. 201 |
5.9 Fiber Bragg Gratings | p. 213 |
5.10 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing | p. 224 |
6 Fiber Optic Structural Sensors and Their Merits | p. 233 |
6.1 Merits of Fiber Optic Structural Sensors | p. 233 |
6.2 Types of Fiber Optic Structural Sensor | p. 235 |
6.3 Intensiometric Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 237 |
6.4 Interferometric Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 243 |
6.5 Polarimetric and Modalmetric Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 250 |
6.6 Spectrometric Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 252 |
6.7 Selection of a Fiber Optic Structural Sensor | p. 260 |
7 Fiber Optic Strain and Temperature Sensitivity | p. 263 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 263 |
7.2 Optothermomechanical Equations | p. 265 |
7.3 Strain and Temperature Sensitivity and Gauge Factors | p. 267 |
7.4 Transverse Strains and Their Measurement | p. 275 |
7.5 Thermal Apparent Strain | p. 285 |
7.6 Temperature Compensation for Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 288 |
7.7 Temperature-Independent Strain Sensors | p. 316 |
7.8 Strain-Temperature Cross-Sensitivity | p. 323 |
8 Sensor Installation and Material Integration Issues | p. 325 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 325 |
8.2 Installation of Fiber Optic Structural Sensors | p. 325 |
8.3 Fiber Optic Sensor Integration Within FRP Materials | p. 338 |
8.4 The Influence of Fiber Optic Coatings | p. 343 |
8.5 Influence of Embedded Optical Fibers on the Host Structure | p. 354 |
8.6 Pultruded Fiber Optic Structural Sensors | p. 363 |
8.7 Fiber Optic Structural Sensor Connectorization | p. 365 |
9 Short Gauge Sensor and Applications | p. 369 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 369 |
9.2 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Demodulation | p. 371 |
9.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Applications | p. 403 |
9.4 Interferometric Short-Gauge Structural Sensors | p. 449 |
9.5 Interferometric Sensor Applications | p. 464 |
10 Long Gauge-Length Fiber Optic Sensing | p. 475 |
10.1 Introduction | p. 475 |
10.2 Long Gauge-Length Sensors and Their Demodulation | p. 478 |
10.3 Long Gauge-Length Sensor Applications | p. 494 |
11 Multiplexed Fiber Optic Structural Sensing | p. 526 |
11.1 Introduction | p. 526 |
11.2 Fabrication of Serial Arrays of Fiber Optic Sensors | p. 527 |
11.3 Serial Multiplexing of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors | p. 529 |
11.4 Serial Multiplexed Fiber Bragg Grating Applications | p. 567 |
12 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing | p. 595 |
12.1 Introduction | p. 595 |
12.2 Fiber Bragg Intragrating Distributed Sensing Concept | p. 597 |
12.3 T-Matrix Formalism for Nonuniform Fiber Bragg Gratings | p. 599 |
12.4 Intensity Reflection Spectrum for Distributed Strain Sensing | p. 604 |
12.5 Distributed Strain Sensing Based on Fourier Transforms | p. 611 |
12.6 Experimental Fourier Transform Distributed Strain Sensing | p. 614 |
12.7 Fourier Transform for Serial Multiplexed Fiber Grating Sensors | p. 619 |
12.8 Low Coherence Techniques for Distributed Sensing | p. 623 |
12.9 Distributed Sensing Under Simulated Brillouin Scattering | p. 626 |
12.10 Distributed Strain Sensing Applications | p. 633 |
13 Future Prospects and Summary | p. 644 |
13.1 Overview | p. 644 |
13.2 Fiber Bragg Grating Universal Demodulation System | p. 648 |
13.3 Summary | p. 655 |
References | p. 659 |
Index | p. 701 |