Nanofabrication : PRINCIPLES TO LABORATORY PRACTICE

Title:

Personal Author:

Sarangan, Andrew, author

Series:

Optical sciences and applications of light

Physical Description:

xv, 299 pages : illustrations ; 26 cm.

ISBN:

9781498725576

Subject Term:

Nanostructured materials -- Design and construction

Semiconductors -- Etching

Nanoelectronics -- Experiments

Available:*

Library	Item Barcode	Call Number	Material Type	Item Category 1	Status
Searching... PSZ JB	30000010345278	TK7874.843 S27 2017	Open Access Book	Book	Searching... Unknown

This book is designed to introduce typical cleanroom processes, techniques, and their fundamental principles. It is written for the practicing scientist or engineer, with a focus on being able to transition the information from the book to the laboratory. Basic theory such as electromagnetics and electrochemistry is described in as much depth as necessary to understand and explain the current practice and their limitations. Examples from various areas of interest will be covered, such as the fabrication of photonic devices including photo detectors, waveguides, and optical coatings, which are not commonly found in other fabrication texts.

Author Notes

Andrew Sarangan is a professor and associate director of the Electro-Optics Graduate Program at the University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio. Dr. Sarangan's current research interests include semiconductor optoelectronics, nanofabrication, and computational electromagnetics. He has developed graduate courses in nanofabrication,nanophotonics, optical thin films, and integrated optics. He is a senior member of the IEEE and the SPIE and a registered professional engineer in the state of Ohio. He is also an accomplished pilot and a certificated flight instructor.

Series Preface	p. xi
Preface	p. xiii
Author	p. xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanofabrication	p. 1
1.1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanofabrication	p. 1
1.1.1 Importance of Understanding the Techniques	p. 1
1.1.2 Creative Problem Solving	p. 2
1.1.3 What Has Been Done by Others versus What You Can Do	p. 2
1.1.4 Experiment versus Project	p. 2
1.1.5 Nano and the Media	p. 3
1.1.6 Carbon versus Silicon and Self-Assembly versus Micromachining	p. 3
1.1.7 Nanotechnology Is Old	p. 3
1.1.8 Moore's Prediction and Driving Forces	p. 4
1.1.9 Why Components Have to Be Small	p. 4
1.1.10 Nanofabrication Is a Multidisciplinary Science	p. 5
1.1.11 Units of Measure	p. 5
1.2 Cleanrooms for Device Fabrication: Basic Concepts	p. 5
1.2.1 Cleanroom Classification and Airflow Rates	p. 7
1.2.2 Particle Count Measurement	p. 9
1.2.3 Service Access	p. 9
1.2.4 Humidity, Temperature, and Lighting	p. 10
1.2.5 Safety	p. 10
Problems	p. 10
Laboratory Exercise	p. 11
References	p. 11
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Vacuum and Plasma Technology	p. 13
2.1 Fundamentals of Vacuum	p. 13
2.1.1 Conductance	p. 15
2.1.2 Pumping	p. 16
2.1.3 Effect of a Vacuum Hose	p. 18
2.1.4 Rough Vacuum	p. 19
2.1.5 High-Vacuum Pumps	p. 23
2.1.5.1 Turbo Molecular Pumps	p. 23
2.1.5.2 Cryo Pumps	p. 26
2.1.6 Leaks	p. 29
2.1.7 Adsorption and Desorption	p. 29
2.1.8 Types of Pumps	p. 31
2.2 Pressure and Flow Measurements	p. 32
2.2.1 Pressure (or Vacuum) Measurement	p. 32
2.2.2 Gas Flow Rate Measurement	p. 36
2.3 Fundamentals of Plasmas for Device Fabrication	p. 37
2.3.1 Parallel Plate Configuration	p. 38
2.3.2 Electron and Bulk Gas Temperature	p. 42
2.3.3 Langmuir's Probe	p. 45
2.3.4 DC Ion Sputtering and Implantation	p. 46
2.3.5 RF Plasma	p. 47
2.3.6 Other Electrical Plasmas	p. 50
Problems	p. 51
Laboratory Exercises	p. 51
References	p. 51
Chapter 3 Physical and Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 53
3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition	p. 53
3.1.1 Thermal Evaporation	p. 53
3.1.1.1 Resistance Heating Method	p. 55
3.1.1.2 Electron Beam Evaporation	p. 55
3.1.1.3 Thermal Evaporation Rate from the Source	p. 59
3.1.1.4 Deposition Rate and Distribution	p. 60
3.1.1.5 E-Beam Evaporation of Dielectrics	p. 61
3.1.1.6 Reactive Thermal Evaporation	p. 62
3.1.1.7 Thermal Evaporation of Alloys and Compounds	p. 62
3.1.1.8 Ion-Assisted Deposition	p. 62
3.1.2 Sputter Removal and Deposition	p. 64
3.1.2.1 Sputter Removal Mechanism	p. 65
3.1.2.2 Sputter Yield	p. 66
3.1.2.3 Magnetron Sputtering	p. 69
3.1.2.4 Sputter Removal Rate	p. 69
3.1.2.5 Sputter Deposition Rate	p. 70
3.1.2.6 Dependence of Sputter Deposition Rate on Pressure	p. 71
3.1.2.7 Energy of the Sputtered Atoms	p. 71
3.1.2.8 Sputter Up versus Sputter Down	p. 72
3.1.2.9 Compound Sputtering	p. 73
3.1.2.10 Co-Sputtering	p. 74
3.1.2.11 Reactive Sputtering	p. 74
3.1.2.12 Thermal Evaporation versus Sputtering	p. 75
3.1.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition	p. 76
3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 77
3.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 81
3.2.2 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 82
3.2.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 83
3.2.4 Atomic Layer Deposition	p. 84
3.3 Thin-Film Measurements	p. 85
3.3.1 Thickness Measurement with a Quartz Crystal Microbalance	p. 85
3.3.1.1 Temperature Sensitivity	p. 87
3.3.1.2 Tooling Factor	p. 88
3.3.1.3 Film Stress	p. 88
3.3.1.4 Deposition Energy	p. 88
3.3.1.5 Density and z-Ratio	p. 88
3.3.2 Thickness Measurement with a Stylus Profiler	p. 89
3.3.3 Measurement of Optical Properties	p. 89
3.3.4 Thin-Film Stress	p. 89
3.3.4.1 Origins of Film Stress	p. 90
3.3.4.2 Measurement of Stress	p. 90
3.3.4.3 Compressive Stress	p. 92
3.3.4.4 Tensile Stress	p. 92
3.3.4.5 Stress Reduction	p. 93
3.4 Thin-Film Materials	p. 93
3.4.1 Titanium	p. 93
3.4.2 Chromium	p. 93
3.4.3 Aluminum	p. 93
3.4.4 Copper	p. 93
3.4.5 Gold	p. 94
3.4.6 Silver	p. 94
3.4.7 Platinum	p. 94
3.4.8 Nickel	p. 94
3.4.9 Tungsten	p. 94
3.4.10 Molybdenum	p. 94
3.4.11 Vanadium	p. 94
3.4.12 Silicon	p. 95
3.4.13 Germanium	p. 95
3.4.14 Aluminum Oxide	p. 95
3.4.15 Magnesium Fluoride	p. 95
3.4.16 Silicon Dioxide	p. 95
3.4.17 Titanium Dioxide	p. 95
3.4.18 Niobium Oxide	p. 95
3.4.19 Zinc Sulfide	p. 96
3.4.20 Vanadium Oxide	p. 96
Problems	p. 96
Laboratory Exercises	p. 96
References	p. 97
Chapter 4 Thin-Film Optics	p. 99
4.1 Antireflection Coatings	p. 99
4.1.1 Fresnel Reflection	p. 99
4.1.2 Single-Layer Antireflection Coating	p. 100
4.1.3 Two-Layer Quarter-Wave Film Designs	p. 103
4.1.4 Two-Layer Non-Quarter-Wave Film Designs	p. 105
4.1.5 Three-Layer Antireflection Design	p. 108
4.2 Transfer Matrix Method for Modeling Optical Thin Films	p. 108
4.3 High-Reflection Dielectric Coatings	p. 111
4.4 Metal Film Optics	p. 112
4.4.1 Reflectance Properties of Metals	p. 112
4.4.2 Antireflection for Metals	p. 114
4.4.3 High Optical Transmission through Metals	p. 117
4.5 Optical Thin-Film Deposition	p. 120
Problems	p. 124
Laboratory Exercises	p. 125
References	p. 125
Chapter 5 Substrate Materials	p. 127
5.1 Silicon	p. 128
5.1.1 Silicon Wafer Manufacture	p. 128
5.1.1.1 Raw Material	p. 128
5.1.1.2 Crystal Growth	p. 129
5.1.1.3 Ingot Processing	p. 129
5.1.1.4 Wafer Saw	p. 129
5.1.1.5 Etching, Lapping, and Polishing	p. 129
5.1.1.6 Finished Silicon Wafers	p. 130
5.1.2 Silicon Crystal Orientations	p. 130
5.1.2.1 (100) Planes	p. 131
5.1.2.2 (110) Planes	p. 131
5.1.2.3 (111) Planes	p. 131
5.1.2.4 Other Crystal Planes	p. 131
5.1.2.5 Crystal Orientations and Their Properties	p. 131
5.1.2.6 (100) Wafer	p. 132
5.1.2.7 (110) Wafer	p. 132
5.2 Silica	p. 134
5.3 Sapphire	p. 134
5.4 Compound Semiconductors	p. 135
5.5 Properties of Substrates	p. 136
References	p. 136
Chapter 6 Lithography	p. 139
6.1 Substrate Cleaning and Preparation	p. 139
6.1.1 Acetone-Methanol-Isopropyl Alcohol (AMI) Cleaning	p. 139
6.1.2 Piranha (Sulfuric Peroxide Mixture) Cleaning	p. 140
6.1.3 RCA Cleaning	p. 140
6.1.4 Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE) Clean	p. 140
6.1.5 Plasma Cleaning	p. 140
6.1.6 Megasonic Cleaning	p. 141
6.1.7 Evaluation of Surface Quality	p. 141
6.2 Spin Coating	p. 142
6.2.1 Stage 1: Dispense Stage	p. 142
6.2.2 Stage 2: Spread Stage	p. 142
6.2.3 Stage 3: Thin-Out Stage	p. 143
6.2.4 Stage 4: Evaporation Stage	p. 147
6.2.5 Edge Bead	p. 149
6.2.6 Common Problems Encountered in Spin Coating	p. 149
6.2.7 Solvent Bake (Soft Bake)	p. 151
6.3 Photomasks	p. 152
6.3.1 Laser-Written Photomasks	p. 152
6.3.2 Film Photomasks	p. 154
6.3.3 Electron Beam-Written Photomasks	p. 154
6.4 UV Light Sources	p. 156
6.5 Contact Mask Lithography	p. 157
6.6 Projection Photolithography	p. 160
6.7 Basic Properties of Photoresists	p. 163
6.7.1 Components of Photoresists	p. 163
6.7.2 Effects of Moisture on Photoresist Performance	p. 165
6.7.3 Development	p. 166
6.7.4 Modeling the Optical Performance of Photoresists	p. 166
6.7.4.1 Dill Parameters	p. 166
6.7.4.2 Diffusion	p. 168
6.7.4.3 Numerical Shooting Method for Modeling the Optical Field	p. 168
6.7.4.4 Solubility Model	p. 174
6.7.4.5 Quasi-Two-Dimensional Model	p. 175
6.7.4.6 Bottom Antireflection Coatings	p. 178
6.7.5 Negative-Tone Photoresists	p. 181
6.7.6 Image Reversal	p. 181
6.7.7 Substrate Priming	p. 182
6.7.8 Hard Bake	p. 184
6.8 SU-8 Photoresist	p. 184
6.9 Patterning by Lithography	p. 187
6.9.1 Etch-Down Patterning	p. 187
6.9.2 Lift-Off Patterning	p. 189
6.9.3 Bilayer Lift-Off	p. 190
6.9.4 Etch-Down versus Lift-Off Patterning	p. 190
6.9.4.1 Film Adhesion	p. 190
6.9.4.2 Etch Chemistry	p. 191
6.9.4.3 Linewidth Control	p. 191
6.9.4.4 Film Thickness	p. 191
6.9.4.5 Outgassing	p. 192
6.9.5 Patterning by Planarization	p. 192
6.10 Laser Interference Lithography	p. 193
6.11 Resolution Enhancement Techniques	p. 195
6.11.1 Phase-Shifted Masks	p. 196
6.11.2 Optical Proximity Corrections	p. 196
6.11.3 Self-Aligned Double Patterning	p. 196
6.11.4 Directed Self-Assembly	p. 198
6.12 Extreme-UV Lithography	p. 198
6.13 Nonoptical Lithography	p. 199
6.13.1 Electron Beam Lithography	p. 199
6.13.2 Nanoimprint Lithography	p. 202
Problems	p. 203
Laboratory Exercises	p. 203
References	p. 204
Chapter 7 Wet Chemical and Plasma Etching	p. 209
7.1 Wet Chemical Etching	p. 209
7.1.1 Basic Principles	p. 209
7.1.2 Wet Chemical Etch of Selected Materials	p. 212
7.1.2.1 Silicon Dioxide Etch	p. 212
7.3.2.1 Silicon Nitride Etch	p. 214
7.1.2.1 Silicon Etch	p. 215
7.1.2.2 Aluminum Etch	p. 215
7.1.2.3 Copper Etch	p. 215
7.1.2.4 Titanium Etch	p. 215
7.1.2.7 Gold Etch	p. 215
7.1.2.8 Silver Etch	p. 215
7.1.3 Orientation-Dependent Wet Etching of Silicon	p. 215
7.1.3.1 (100) Silicon Etch with KOH	p. 215
7.1.3.2 (110) Silicon Etch with KOH	p. 219
7.1.3.3 Other Elchants for Orientation-Dependent Etching of Silicon	p. 220
7.2 Plasma Etching	p. 221
7.2.1 Basic Construction of a Plasma Etcher	p. 222
7.2.2 Free Radicals and Ions in a Plasma and Their Roles	p. 223
7.2.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Etching	p. 227
7.2.4 Substrate Temperature	p. 228
7.2.5 Silicon Etching	p. 228
7.2.5.1 SF 6 Plasma for Etching Silicon	p. 229
7.2.5.2 CF 4 Plasma for Etching Silicon	p. 231
7.2.5.3 Mixed Gas Fluorine Plasmas for Etching Silicon	p. 232
7.2.5.4 CI 2 Plasma for Etching Silicon	p. 233
7.2.6 Photoresist Erosion in a Plasma Etch	p. 234
Problems	p. 237
Laboratory Exercises	p. 238
References	p. 238
Chapter 8 Doping, Surface Modifications, and Metal Contacts	p. 241
8.1 Thermal Budget	p. 241
8.2 Doping by Thermal Diffusion	p. 242
8.2.1 Vapor, Liquid, and Solid Dopant Sources	p. 242
8.2.2 Calculation of Diffusion Profiles	p. 246
8.2.3 Masking for Thermal Diffusion	p. 252
8.3 Ion Implantation	p. 254
8.3.1 Doping by Ion Implantation	p. 254
8.3.2 Masking Materials for Ton Implantation	p. 258
8.3.3 Implantation for Silicon-on-Insulator Substrates	p. 258
8.4 Thermal Oxidation of Silicon	p. 261
8.5 Metal Contacts to Semiconductors	p. 268
References	p. 275
Chapter 9 Metrology for Device Fabrication	p. 279
9.1 Semiconductor Device Fabrication Metrology	p. 279
9.1.1 Substrate Defect Metrology	p. 279
9.1.2 Lithography Metrology	p. 279
9.1.3 Gate Dielectrics	p. 282
9.1.4 Metrology for Ion Implantation	p. 283
9.2 Interconnect Metrology	p. 285
9.2.1 Low-¿ Dielectric Film Metrology	p. 286
9.2.2 Metal Layer Metrology	p. 286
9.2.3 CMP Metrology	p. 286
References	p. 287
Index	p. 289

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Table of Contents