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Summary
Summary
This newly revised and expanded edition of the Artech House classic, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications, offers a current and comprehensive introduction to the practice and underpinnings of personal communications. Every chapter has been updated to explain how the latest ultra-wide band technology affects all aspects of personal communications. The third edition covers important innovations such as wireless local networks, personal networks, and MIMO techniques. Written for a broad spectrum of readers, this practical resource is useful to experienced engineers designing systems, EE professors teaching fundamentals, or technology consultants needing a quick, cohesive overview. In addition to its accessible coverage of technology and theory, this unique volume examines how radio waves and wireless devices affect the human body.
Author Notes
Kazimierz Siwiak earned an M.S.E.E. from Polytechnic University, New York.
Siwiak is a member of the technical staff and a science advisory board associate at MotorolaÂs Messaging Systems Products Group, Florida. The author of Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications (Artech House, 1995) and a number of technical papers.
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Table of Contents
Preface to the First Edition | p. ix |
Preface to the Second Edition | p. xiii |
Preface to the Third Edition | p. xvii |
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective | p. 1 |
1.2 Personal Communications | p. 3 |
1.3 Electromagnetics Fundamentals | p. 5 |
1.3.1 Maxwell's Equations | p. 8 |
1.3.2 Boundary Conditions | p. 10 |
1.3.3 Vector and Scalar Potentials | p. 11 |
1.3.4 Radiation from a Sinusoidally Excited Current Element | p. 12 |
1.3.5 Duality in Maxwell's Equations | p. 14 |
1.3.6 Current Loop for Sinusoidal Excitation | p. 16 |
1.3.7 Radiation of a UWB Elementary Dipole and Loop | p. 16 |
1.3.8 Radiation Zones | p. 20 |
1.4 Basic Radiowave and Antenna Parameters | p. 23 |
1.5 Summary | p. 30 |
Problems | p. 30 |
References | p. 35 |
2 Fixed-Site Antennas | p. 37 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 37 |
2.2 Antennas as Arrays of Current Sources | p. 39 |
2.3 Pattern Multiplication and Array Factor | p. 39 |
2.4 Collinear Antennas and Vertical-Plane Pattern Control | p. 40 |
2.5 Directivity and Beam Width for Omnidirectional Antennas | p. 41 |
2.6 Array Antennas | p. 42 |
2.6.1 Collinear Array and Fourier Transform | p. 43 |
2.6.2 Horizontal-Plane Pattern Directivity | p. 44 |
2.6.3 Aperture Antennas: Two-Dimensional Transforms | p. 45 |
2.7 Pattern Shaping of High-Gain Collinear Antennas | p. 46 |
2.8 Multiple-Beam Antennas | p. 49 |
2.8.1 Matrix-Fed Multiple-Beam Antenna Designs | p. 50 |
2.8.2 Smart Antennas | p. 51 |
2.9 Proximity Effects in Antennas | p. 53 |
2.9.1 Treating Scatterers as Infinitely Long Cylinders | p. 53 |
2.9.2 Modeling the Finite-Length Scatterer | p. 55 |
2.9.3 Measured and Calculated Patterns Involving Cylindrical Scatterers | p. 57 |
2.9.4 Application to an Antenna Mounted on the Side of a Tower | p. 57 |
2.9.5 Effect of Antenna Distortion on Coverage Range | p. 61 |
2.9.6 Parasitically Driven Array Antennas | p. 61 |
2.10 Indoor Fixed Sites | p. 65 |
2.10.1 Wireless Local-Area Network Fixed Sites | p. 66 |
2.10.2 Gain Antennas for UWB Pulses | p. 66 |
2.11 Summary | p. 68 |
Problems | p. 69 |
References | p. 73 |
3 Radio Communication Channel | p. 77 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 77 |
3.2 Guided Waves | p. 78 |
3.2.1 Losses in Dielectrics | p. 78 |
3.2.2 Losses in Conductors | p. 80 |
3.2.3 Coaxial Transmission Lines | p. 81 |
3.2.4 Parallel Transmission Lines | p. 84 |
3.2.5 Minimum Attenuation in Transmission Lines | p. 85 |
3.2.6 Summary of Transmission Line Relationships | p. 86 |
3.2.7 Optical Fiber Transmission Lines | p. 86 |
3.3 Basic Radiowave Propagation | p. 87 |
3.3.1 Friis Transmission Formula | p. 88 |
3.3.2 Comparison of Guided Wave and Radiowave Propagation Attenuation | p. 89 |
3.4 Wave Polarization | p. 90 |
3.4.1 Polarization of Antennas | p. 90 |
3.4.2 Polarization Characteristics of Antennas | p. 91 |
3.4.3 Polarization Mismatch in Antennas | p. 91 |
3.4.4 Polarization Filtering: An Experiment in Optics | p. 92 |
3.4.5 Polarization Scattering and the Radar Equation | p. 93 |
3.5 Summary | p. 94 |
Problems | p. 95 |
References | p. 98 |
4 Radio Frequency Spectrum | p. 99 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 99 |
4.2 Extremely Low and Very Low Frequencies ( | p. 101 |
4.3 Low and Medium Frequencies (30 kHz to 3 MHz) | p. 103 |
4.4 High Frequencies (3 to 30 MHz) | p. 103 |
4.4.1 Ionosphere | p. 104 |
4.4.2 Layers in the Ionosphere | p. 104 |
4.4.3 Ionized Gases | p. 105 |
4.4.4 Ionospheric Reflection | p. 106 |
4.4.5 Maximum Usable Frequency | p. 106 |
4.4.6 Multiple Hops in Shortwave Communications | p. 107 |
4.5 Very High Frequencies and Ultrahigh Frequencies (30 MHz to 3 GHz) | p. 110 |
4.5.1 Communications via Scattering from Meteor Trails | p. 110 |
4.5.2 Propagation by Tropospheric Bending | p. 113 |
4.5.3 Tropospheric Scattering | p. 113 |
4.6 Above Ultrahigh Frequencies (Above 3 GHz) | p. 114 |
4.7 Picking an Optimum Operating Frequency | p. 114 |
4.8 Multiuser Communications Systems | p. 117 |
4.8.1 Paging Systems | p. 118 |
4.8.2 Digital Voice Broadcasting Systems | p. 122 |
4.8.3 Packet Access Systems | p. 123 |
4.8.4 Cellular and Mobile Voice Systems | p. 125 |
4.8.5 Third-Generation Voice and Data Mobile Systems | p. 129 |
4.8.6 Broadband Wireless Access Systems | p. 131 |
4.8.7 Wireless Local-Area Network Systems | p. 132 |
4.8.8 UWB Systems | p. 134 |
4.9 Summary | p. 135 |
Problems | p. 136 |
References | p. 141 |
5 Communications Using Earth-Orbiting Satellites | p. 145 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 145 |
5.2 Satellite Orbit Fundamentals | p. 146 |
5.2.1 Orbital Mechanics | p. 146 |
5.2.2 Orbital Predictions | p. 148 |
5.2.3 Types of Orbits | p. 149 |
5.2.4 Big LEO Systems | p. 151 |
5.3 Satellite Propagation Path | p. 151 |
5.3.1 Path Loss in a Satellite Link | p. 152 |
5.3.2 Doppler Shift | p. 154 |
5.3.3 Coverage from Satellites | p. 155 |
5.3.4 Link Characteristics from Earth-Orbiting Satellites | p. 157 |
5.4 Polarization Effects in Signals from an Orbiting Satellite | p. 160 |
5.4.1 Effects of Reflections and Diffractions | p. 160 |
5.4.2 Faraday Rotation of Polarization | p. 161 |
5.5 Summary | p. 163 |
Problems | p. 164 |
References | p. 169 |
6 Radiowave Propagation over a Smooth Earth | p. 171 |
6.1 Introduction | p. 171 |
6.2 A Two-Ray Propagation Model for Harmonic Waves | p. 171 |
6.2.1 Spherical Wave with Modifiers | p. 172 |
6.2.2 Plane Wave Reflection Coefficients | p. 174 |
6.2.3 Two-Layer Ground Model | p. 175 |
6.2.4 Surface Wave Factor | p. 176 |
6.2.5 Grazing Angle of Incidence | p. 177 |
6.3 An Open-Field Test Range Model | p. 178 |
6.3.1 A Two-Ray Model of an Open-Field Test Site | p. 180 |
6.3.2 Field Strength Versus Ground Parameters | p. 181 |
6.3.3 Field-Strength Profile on a 45m Range | p. 182 |
6.3.4 Calibrating a Test Site | p. 183 |
6.3.5 Effect of the Calibration Gain Standard | p. 185 |
6.4 UWB Pulse Propagation with a Ground Reflection | p. 187 |
6.4.1 UWB Pulse in Free Space | p. 187 |
6.4.2 Ground Reflection with a UWB Pulse | p. 190 |
6.4.3 UWB Pulses Sent at High Repetition Rate | p. 193 |
6.5 Summary | p. 194 |
Problems | p. 194 |
References | p. 197 |
7 Radiowave Propagation: Urban and Suburban Paths | p. 199 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 199 |
7.2 Theoretical Models for Urban Propagation | p. 200 |
7.2.1 Diffracting Screens Model | p. 200 |
7.2.2 COST 231 Model | p. 205 |
7.2.3 Diffraction over Knife-Edge Obstacles | p. 206 |
7.3 Empirical Models for Urban Propagation | p. 208 |
7.3.1 Okumura Signal Prediction Method | p. 208 |
7.3.2 Hata and Modified Hata Formulas | p. 208 |
7.3.3 Ibrahim and Parsons Method: London Model | p. 212 |
7.4 Propagation beyond the Horizon | p. 214 |
7.5 Propagation within, near, and into Buildings | p. 216 |
7.5.1 Theoretical In-Building Multipath-Based Model | p. 216 |
7.5.2 Theoretical In-Building Ray-Tracing Model | p. 217 |
7.5.3 An In-Room Deterministic Propagation Model | p. 218 |
7.5.4 Propagation near Buildings | p. 221 |
7.5.5 Propagation into Buildings | p. 223 |
7.6 Polarization Effects | p. 224 |
7.6.1 Polarization Cross-Coupling Model Using Diffraction | p. 225 |
7.6.2 An Urban Model of Polarization Cross-Coupling | p. 227 |
7.6.3 Polarization Cross-Coupling Measurements | p. 229 |
7.6.4 A Three-Dimensional Model of Incident Waves | p. 231 |
7.7 Summary | p. 231 |
Problems | p. 232 |
References | p. 235 |
8 Signals in Multipath Propagation | p. 239 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 239 |
8.2 Urban Propagation: Understanding Signal Behavior | p. 241 |
8.3 Statistical Descriptions of Signals | p. 242 |
8.3.1 Multipath and Fading: Local Variations | p. 243 |
8.3.2 Large-Scale Signal Variations | p. 246 |
8.3.3 Combining Cumulative Distribution Functions | p. 247 |
8.3.4 Normal Approximation to Composite CDF | p. 248 |
8.3.5 Small-Scale Signal Variations and Delay Spread | p. 248 |
8.3.6 Multipath with UWB Pulses | p. 251 |
8.3.7 Relation Between Multipath and Propagation Law | p. 252 |
8.4 Signal Strength Required for Communications | p. 254 |
8.4.1 Signal Call Success Probability | p. 255 |
8.4.2 Determining the Fixed Station Power | p. 257 |
8.5 Diversity Techniques | p. 258 |
8.5.1 Diversity Improvement by Repeated Transmission | p. 258 |
8.5.2 Simultaneous Transmissions in Radio Communications | p. 259 |
8.5.3 Diversity Reception by Multiple Antennas | p. 263 |
8.5.4 Diversity Reception of Lognormally Distributed Signals | p. 266 |
8.5.5 Diversity Reception of Rayleigh-Distributed Signals | p. 268 |
8.5.6 Mitigation of Multipath Effects | p. 270 |
8.5.7 Maximum Rake Gain for UWB Pulses in Multipath | p. 271 |
8.6 Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output Systems | p. 271 |
8.6.1 A MIMO System Reference Model | p. 271 |
8.6.2 MIMO System Capacity | p. 273 |
8.6.3 MIMO System Capacity with a LOS Component | p. 273 |
8.7 Summary | p. 274 |
Problems | p. 275 |
References | p. 278 |
9 Receiver Sensitivity and Transmitted Fields | p. 281 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 281 |
9.2 Field-Strength Sensitivity of Receivers | p. 282 |
9.2.1 Statistical Method for Measuring Field-Strength Sensitivity | p. 282 |
9.2.2 Determining the 80% Calling Response Rate | p. 283 |
9.2.3 Accuracy of the 20-Call Test | p. 284 |
9.2.4 A Simplified Three-of-Three Method | p. 285 |
9.3 Relating Field Strength to Received Power | p. 286 |
9.3.1 Pattern Gain Averaging | p. 287 |
9.3.2 Averaging Methods for Mobile Phone Testing | p. 289 |
9.4 Test Site Field-Strength Calibration | p. 290 |
9.5 Reliability and Repeatability of Sensitivity Measurements | p. 291 |
9.5.1 Repeatability of Sensitivity Measurements | p. 292 |
9.5.2 Variations in the Calibration Factor Due to Ground Parameters | p. 293 |
9.5.3 Field-Strength Variations with Height | p. 293 |
9.5.4 Accuracy of the Calibration Gain Standards | p. 294 |
9.5.5 Intercomparison of Receiver-Sensitivity Test Sites | p. 295 |
9.5.6 Test Range Error Uncertainties | p. 297 |
9.6 EMC and EMI Test Chamber | p. 300 |
9.7 Transmitter Test Sites | p. 301 |
9.8 Effect of the Human Body | p. 302 |
9.8.1 Fields External to the Body | p. 302 |
9.8.2 Biological Aspects | p. 303 |
9.9 RF Exposure Standards | p. 305 |
9.9.1 Radiated RF Exposure Guidelines and Regulations | p. 306 |
9.9.2 Compliance with RF Exposure Standards | p. 309 |
9.10 Influence of Ground on Yagi Antenna Patterns | p. 313 |
9.11 Summary | p. 316 |
Problems | p. 316 |
References | p. 319 |
10 Simulated Human Body Devices | p. 323 |
10.1 Introduction | p. 323 |
10.2 Field-Strength Sensitivities of Body-Worn Receivers | p. 324 |
10.2.1 Population Sample for Measurements | p. 325 |
10.2.2 Design of the Measurement Experiment | p. 326 |
10.2.3 Receiver-Sensitivity Measurement Results | p. 327 |
10.3 Analysis of Phantom Simulated Human Body Devices | p. 330 |
10.3.1 Saline Water | p. 331 |
10.3.2 SALTY and SALTY-LITE Human Body Devices | p. 334 |
10.3.3 Lossy Wire Antenna Model of Simulated Body Devices | p. 334 |
10.3.4 Infinite Cylinder Model of Simulated Body Devices for Vertical Polarization | p. 337 |
10.3.5 Infinite Cylinder Model of Simulated Body Devices for Horizontal Polarization | p. 340 |
10.4 Magnetic Fields Around Simulated Body Devices | p. 341 |
10.4.1 Temperature Dependence of Simulated Body Devices | p. 341 |
10.4.2 Measured and Computed Fields near the Simulated Body Devices | p. 342 |
10.4.3 Body Enhancement in Body-Worn Receivers | p. 344 |
10.5 Anthropomorphic Simulated Head | p. 345 |
10.6 Summary | p. 346 |
Problems | p. 347 |
References | p. 348 |
11 Loops, Dipoles, and Patch Antennas | p. 351 |
11.1 Introduction | p. 351 |
11.2 A Look at Quality Factor Q | p. 351 |
11.2.1 Definition of Q | p. 352 |
11.2.2 Values of Q | p. 354 |
11.3 Primer on Fundamental Limitations in Small Antenna | p. 355 |
11.3.1 Fields of Radiating Structures | p. 355 |
11.3.2 Modal Impedances of Free Space Modes | p. 355 |
11.3.3 Quality Factors Q[subscript n] of Free Space Modes | p. 357 |
11.3.4 Small Antenna Bandwidth Limitations | p. 359 |
11.3.5 Superdirectivity in Small Antennas | p. 360 |
11.4 Antennas for Personal Communications | p. 361 |
11.4.1 Loops and Their Characteristics | p. 361 |
11.4.2 Gap-Fed Loop | p. 364 |
11.4.3 Near Fields of an Elementary Loop | p. 365 |
11.4.4 Dipoles and Their Characteristics | p. 366 |
11.4.5 Near Fields of Dipoles | p. 367 |
11.4.6 A Ferrite-Loaded Loop Antenna | p. 369 |
11.5 Transmission Line Antennas | p. 370 |
11.5.1 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antennas | p. 371 |
11.5.2 Circular Microstrip Patch Antennas | p. 375 |
11.6 Practical Considerations in Small Antennas | p. 378 |
11.6.1 Helix-Radio Dipole | p. 379 |
11.6.2 Mutual Coupling of a Dipole with a Radio Case | p. 381 |
11.7 UWB Antennas | p. 384 |
11.7.1 Radiation of Short Pulses | p. 384 |
11.7.2 Far-Field of an Arbitrary UWB Antenna | p. 386 |
11.7.3 Receiving UWB Signals | p. 388 |
11.8 A Simple UWB Antenna | p. 390 |
11.9 Summary | p. 392 |
Problems | p. 394 |
References | p. 397 |
12 Radio Communications System Designs | p. 401 |
12.1 Introduction | p. 401 |
12.2 Noise | p. 402 |
12.2.1 Thermal Noise | p. 402 |
12.2.2 Noise and Noise Temperature in the Radio Spectrum | p. 403 |
12.2.3 Noise Asymmetry in Two-Way and Mobile Systems | p. 406 |
12.3 Designing a Messaging System Downlink | p. 406 |
12.3.1 Fixed-Site Antenna Radiation Patterns | p. 407 |
12.3.2 Applying the Statistical Description of Waves | p. 409 |
12.3.3 Link Margins for Specified Performance | p. 410 |
12.3.4 Simulcast Differential Delay | p. 413 |
12.4 Designing Two-Way Systems | p. 416 |
12.4.1 Two-Way Paging System | p. 416 |
12.4.2 Mobile/Cellular System | p. 417 |
12.5 Indoor Systems | p. 418 |
12.5.1 Wireless Local-Area Networks | p. 418 |
12.5.2 Wireless Personal-Area Networks | p. 419 |
12.6 System Coverage | p. 419 |
12.6.1 Coverage Probability over an Area | p. 421 |
12.6.2 Proving Measurements | p. 422 |
12.7 Summary | p. 424 |
Problems | p. 424 |
References | p. 427 |
Appendix A FORTRAN Programs: The Near Field of Dipoles and Helices | p. 429 |
References | p. 431 |
Appendix B FORTRAN Code: The Near Field of Loops | p. 433 |
References | p. 435 |
Appendix C Digital Communications Codes and Character Sets | p. 437 |
Morse Code | p. 437 |
Digital Paging Codes | p. 438 |
Appendix D HF Propagation Models | p. 443 |
VOACAP, ICEPAC, REC533 | p. 444 |
HamCAP | p. 444 |
About the Authors | p. 447 |
List of Symbols | p. 449 |
Vector quantities | p. 452 |
Index | p. 455 |