Nuclear power and the environment

The environmental implications of generating electric power from nuclear fission have been a matter of concern since the construction of the earliest nuclear reactors and power stations in the 1950s. After two or more decades of construction of nuclear power stations, this ceased in many countries, largely as a result of concerns for the environment and human health. However, the pressing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is leading many countries to plan extensive new programmes of construction of nuclear power stations which serves to re-emphasise concerns over environmental impacts. Volume 32 of the Issues in Environmental Science and Technology series is concerned with reviewing the political and social context for nuclear power generation, the nuclear fuel cycles and their implications for the environment. Known issues of nuclear accidents, the legacy of contaminated land and low level waste, and the decommissioning of nuclear sites are considered together with a more forward look at the deep geological disposal of high level waste and the pathways of radioactive substances in the environment and their implications for human and non-human organisms. This topical work will be of interest to scientists and policy makers working within this field or related areas as well as advanced students.

Author Notes

The series has been edited by Professors Hester and Harrison since it began in 1994.

Professor Roy Harrison OBE is listed by ISI Thomson Scientific (on ISI Web of Knowledge) as a Highly Cited Researcher in the Environmental Science/Ecology category. He has an h-index of 54 (i.e. 54 of his papers have received 54 or more citations in the literature). In 2004 he was appointed OBE for services to environmental science in the New Year Honours List. He was profiled by the Journal of Environmental Monitoring (Vol 5, pp 39N-41N, 2003). Professor Harrison's research interests lie in the field of environment and human health. His main specialism is in air pollution, from emissions through atmospheric chemical and physical transformations to exposure and effects on human health. Much of this work is designed to inform the development of policy.

Now an emeritus professor, Professor Ron Hester's current activities in chemistry are mainly as an editor and as an external examiner and assessor. He also retains appointments as external examiner and assessor / adviser on courses, individual promotions, and departmental / subject area evaluations both in the UK and abroad.

John WallsClint A. Sharrad and Laurence M. Harwood and Francis R. LivensJ. T. SmithRichard Kimber and Francis R. Livens and Jonathan R. LloydAnthony W. Banford and Richard B. JarvisKatherine Morris and Gareth T. W. Law and Nick D. BryanJoanna C. Renshaw and Stephanie Handley-Sidhu and Diana R. BrookshawB. J. Howard and N. A. BeresfordJan Pentreath

Nuclear Power Generation - Past, Present and Future	p. 1
1 Introduction	p. 2
2 Origins of Nuclear Power: The Nuclear Weapons Programme	p. 2
3 Expansion of Nuclear Power	p. 7
4 A Period of Decline	p. 12
5 A Nuclear Renaissance? Possibilities and Challenges	p. 15
5.1 Uranium: A Sustainable Energy Source?	p. 20
5.2 Nuclear Power Economics	p. 22
5.3 Shortages in Skilled Labour and Materials	p. 25
5.4 Nuclear Safety	p. 26
5.5 Nuclear Waste Disposal and Decommissioning Nuclear Plants	p. 28
5.6 Proliferation Risks	p. 31
6 Conclusions	p. 33
References	p. 34
Nuclear Fuel Cycles: Interfaces with the Environment	p. 40
1 Nuclear Fission as an Energy Resource	p. 40
2 Nuclear Fuel	p. 41
2.1 Uranium Mining	p. 41
2.2 Uranium Fuel Production and Use	p. 42
2.3 Modern Civil Reactor Fuels	p. 43
2.3.1 Plutonium	p. 43
2.4 Irradiation of Nuclear Fuel	p. 44
2.5 Alternative Fuels	p. 44
2.5.1 Uranium/Plutonium Fast Reactors	p. 44
2.5.2 Highly Enriched Uranium	p. 45
2.5.3 Thorium	p. 45
3 Nuclear Fuel Recycling	p. 45
3.1 Separation of Uranium and Plutonium	p. 46
3.2 Other Reasons to Reprocess	p. 46
3.3 Historical Reprocessing Technologies	p. 47
3.3.1 Precipitation Processes	p. 47
3.4 Purex	p. 48
3.5 Wastes from Fuel Reprocessing	p. 49
3.6 Other Solvent Extraction Processes	p. 49
4 Waste Management Options	p. 49
4.1 The UK Waste Inventory	p. 51
5 Impact of the "Global Nuclear Renaissance"	p. 52
5.1 Growth in Demand	p. 52
5.2 Implications for the Fuel Cycle	p. 53
6 Conclusions	p. 54
Acknowledgements	p. 55
References	p. 55
Nuclear Accidents	p. 57
1 Introduction	p. 58
2 The 1957 Windscale Fire	p. 58
2.1 Events Leading to the Accident	p. 58
2.2 Environmental Contamination	p. 60
2.3 Radiation Exposures and Health Impacts	p. 62
2.4 Social and Psychological Consequences	p. 62
3 The Kyshtym Explosion	p. 63
3.1 Events Leading to the Accident	p. 63
3.2 Environmental Contamination	p. 63
3.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts	p. 64
3.4 Social and Psychological Impacts	p. 67
4 Three-Mile Island	p. 67
4.1 Events Leading to the Accident	p. 67
4.2 Environmental Contamination	p. 68
4.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts	p. 68
4.4 Social and Psychological Impacts	p. 70
5 The Chernobyl Accident	p. 71
5.1 Events Leading to the Accident	p. 71
5.2 Environmental Contamination	p. 71
5.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts	p. 73
5.4 Social and Psychological Impacts	p. 76
6 Conclusions	p. 76
References	p. 78
Management of Land Contaminated by the Nuclear Legacy	p. 82
1 Introduction	p. 83
2 Contamination at Worldwide Nuclear Facilities	p. 83
2.1 United Kingdom	p. 84
2.1.1 Sellafield	p. 84
2.1.2 Dounreay	p. 90
2.2 Russia	p. 91
2.2.1 Mayak	p. 91
2.3 United States of America	p. 92
2.3.1 Rocky Flats	p. 93
2.3.2 Oak Ridge	p. 94
2.3.3 Hanford	p. 95
3 Depleted Uranium	p. 97
4 Remediation	p. 98
4.1 Bioremediation	p. 98
4.2 Chemical Redox Reactions	p. 103
4.3 Permeable Reactive Barrier	p. 104
4.4 Sediment Washing	p. 104
4.5 Electrokinetic Remediation	p. 105
5 Case Studies	p. 106
5.1 Hanford Case Study	p. 106
5.2 Rifle Case Study	p. 107
5.3 Oak Ridge Case Study	p. 109
6 Conclusions	p. 110
Acknowledgements	p. 110
References	p. 110
Decommissioning of Nuclear Sites	p. 116
1 Introduction	p. 116
2 The Goal of Decommissioning	p. 116
3 Stages of Decommissioning	p. 118
4 The Scale of the Decommissioning Challenge in the UK	p. 119
5 Decommissioning Techniques	p. 121
6 Selection of a Decommissioning Approach	p. 123
7 Environmental Impacts of Decommissioning	p. 124
8 Conclusions	p. 127
References	p. 127
Geodisposal of Higher Activity Wastes	p. 129
1 Introduction	p. 129
2 Radioactive Wastes	p. 130
2.1 High Level Wastes	p. 130
2.2 Intermediate Level Waste	p. 131
2.3 Low Level Waste	p. 132
2.4 Other Potential Wastes	p. 132
3 Geological Disposal	p. 132
3.1 The GDF Concept	p. 132
3.2 International Experience	p. 134
3.2.1 Suitable Host Geologies	p. 134
3.2.2 Engineering Approaches	p. 141
3.3 Implementing the UK GDF	p. 142
3.3.1 Historical Perspective, Public Consultation, Policy Decisions, and Responsibilities	p. 142
3.3.2 Guiding Principles and Timeline	p. 142
3.3.3 Site Selection	p. 143
3.3.4 Inventory of Geodisposal Wastes	p. 144
3.3.5 Conditioning and Packaging of Geodisposal Wastes	p. 145
3.3.6 Interim Storage of Geodisposal Wastes	p. 146
3.3.7 Reference Scenarios	p. 147
4 Environmental Chemistry Research Challenges in Geological Disposal	p. 148
Acknowledgements	p. 150
References	p. 150
Pathways of Radioactive Substances in the Environment	p. 152
1 Introduction	p. 153
2 Sources of Radionuclides in the Environment	p. 154
2.1 Nuclear Weapons	p. 154
2.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle	p. 155
2.3 Depleted Uranium	p. 156
2.4 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material	p. 157
2.5 Accidental Release	p. 157
3 Environmental Chemistry of Key Contaminants	p. 158
4 Processes and Factors affecting Radionuclide Transport in the Atmosphere	p. 159
5 Processes and Factors affecting Radionuclide Transport in Aquatic Systems	p. 161
5.1 Sorption to Mineral Surfaces	p. 162
5.2 Redox Reactions	p. 164
5.3 Complexation Reactions	p. 166
5.4 (Co-)Precipitation	p. 169
5.5 Colloidal Transport	p. 169
6 Conclusions	p. 170
References	p. 170
Radiation Protection of the Environment: A Summary of Current Approaches for Assessment of Radionuclides in Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 177
1 Introduction	p. 178
2 Radiation Protection of Wildlife	p. 178
3 Environmental Transfer in Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 180
3.1 Atmospheric Deposition	p. 181
3.2 Radionuclides in Soil	p. 181
3.3 Radionuclide Transfer to Plants	p. 182
3.3.1 Quantification of Transfer to Plants	p. 183
3.4 Radionuclide Transfer to Terrestrial Animals	p. 183
3.4.1 Gastrointestinal Absorption	p. 184
3.4.2 Radionuclide Distribution in Animals	p. 185
3.4.3 Quantification of Transfer to Animals	p. 185
4 Dosimetry for Wildlife	p. 186
4.1 Dose Rate Calculation	p. 188
5 Effects on Wildlife	p. 189
5.1 Environmental Radiological Protection	p. 190
6 Benchmarks for Wildlife Assessment	p. 191
6.1 The ICRP's Derived Consideration Reference Levels	p. 191
6.2 Alternative Approaches used in Radiological Risk Assessments	p. 192
Acknowledgements	p. 194
References	p. 194
Radiological Protection of Workers and the General Public	p. 199
1 Introduction	p. 200
2 The Health Effects of Radiation	p. 202
3 The Scientific Framework for the Protection of Humans	p. 205
4 The ICRP's System of Protection	p. 207
4.1 Justification	p. 210
4.2 Optimisation	p. 211
4.3 Dose Limits	p. 212
4.4 Dose Constraints and Reference Levels	p. 212
5 Radiation Protection in Practice in the UK	p. 214
5.1 Radiation Exposure of Workers	p. 215
5.2 Radiation Exposure of the Public	p. 216
6 Experience Gained from Nuclear Accidents Outside the UK	p. 218
7 Conclusions	p. 221
References	p. 221
Subject Index	p. 223

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