Environmental geology : handbook of field methods and case studies

As earth's population continues to grow and the detrimental aftereffects of industrialization and environmental negligence become more apparent, society has become more aware of, and concerned about, stewardship of the natural environment - water, soil, and air. Sustainable development has become more widely received and promoted in many parts of the world. The need is now critical for earth and environmental scientists and engineers to work together to implement technologies that can preserve our environment. The Earth's population was 6.6 billion as of April 2007 according to the U.S. Census Bureau. This number is expected to rise to 9.4 billion by 2050. The population is increasing the demand for natural resources and energy, and increasing stress on the environment. Thus, protection of the environment and remediation of damage to the environment must be a priority. It is also important to develop procedures that will help to avert further damage to the environment and to recognizeas early as possible the risks associated with changes in the environment. Many methodologies and technologies have become more advanced in the past few decades, and new technologies and approaches have been developed, all to address the growing need for environmental assessment, monitoring, and remediation. As these technologies have grown, the need for interdisciplinary cooperation has also become more apparent. Specialists in remote sensing, geophysical methods, hydrogeology, geology, and geochemistry must maintain current awareness of developments within their sister disciplines in order to formulate effective overall approaches for environmental issues.

Klaus Knodel and Gerhard Lange and Hans-Jurgen VoigtKlaus Knodel and Gerhard Lange and Hans-Jurgen VoigtPeter Herms and Bernhard Horig and Friedrich Kuhn and Dietmar Schmidt and Anke SteinbachDietmar Schmidt and Friedrich KuhnDietmar Schmidt and Peter Herms and Anke Steinbach and Friedrich KuhnFriedrich Kuhn and Bernhard Horig and Dietmar SchmidtNorbert Blindow and Klaus Knodel and Franz Konig and Gerhard Lange and Harald Lindner and Reinie Meyer and Klaus-Henrik Mittenzwey and Andreas Schuck and Knut Seidel and Peter Weidelt and Thomas Wonik and Ugur YaramanciKlaus KnodelKnut Seidel and Harald LindnerKnut Seidel and Gerhard LangeGerhard Lange and Knut SeidelNorbert BlindowDieter EisenburgerAndreas Schuck and Gerhard LangeGerhard Lange and Ugur Yaramanci and Reinhard MeyerThomas WonikFranz Konig and Klaus Knodel and Klaus-Henrik Mittenzwey and Peter WeideltSven Altfelder and Ulrich Beims and Manfred Birke and Reiner Dohrmann and Hagen Hilse and Florian Jenn and Stephan Kaufhold and Klaus Knodel and Claus Kofahl and Manja Liese and Kai Muller and Mike Muller and Ranjeet Nagare and Michael Neuhaus and Claus Nitsche and Michael Porzig and Jens Radschinski and Katrin R. Schmidt and Andreas Thiem and Hans-Jurgen VoigtKlaus Knodel and Kai Muller and Michael Neuhaus and Florian Jenn and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Hans-Jurgen VoigtKlaus Knodel and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Hans-Jurgen VoigtKai Muller and Michael Neuhaus and Hans-Jurgen VoigtUlrich Beims and Florian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Ranjeet Nagare and Claus Nitsche and Michael Porzig and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Klaus Knodel and Manja Liese and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Claus Nitsche and Hans-Jurgen VoigtUlrich Beims and Ranjeet Nagare and Claus Nitsche and Michael Porzig and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Ranjeet Nagare and Michael Porzig and Hans-Jurgen VoigtUlrich BeimsFlorian Jenn and Claus Nitsche and Hans-Jurgen VoigtSven Altfelder and Manfred Birke and Reiner Dohrmann and Hagen Hilse and Florian Jenn and Stephan Kaufhold and Klaus Knodel and Claus Nitsche and Kathrin R. Schmidt and Andreas Thiem and Hans-Jurgen VoigtClaus Nitsche and Hans-Jurgen VoigtKlaus KnodelManfred Birke and Claus Nitsche and Hans-Jurgen VoigtHagen Hilse and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian JennSven Altfelder and Claus NitscheReiner DohrmannReiner DohrmannStephan KaufholdStephan KaufholdKlaus KnodelAndreas Thiem and Kathrin R. SchmidtFlorian Jenn and Claus Kofahl and Mike Muller and Jens Radschinski and Hans-Jurgen VoigtFlorian Jenn and Hans-Jurgen VoigtHans-Jurgen Voigt and Jens RadschinskiClaus KofahlMike MullerThekla Abel and Manfred Birke and Antje Bohn and Klaus Knodel and Gerhard Lange and Alejandra Tejedo and Markus Toloczyki and Ugur YaramanciKlaus Knodel and Marcus Toloczyki and Antje Bohn and Thekla Abel and Gerhard Lange and Alejandro TejedoKlaus Knodel and Gerhard LangeMarcus Toloczyki and Thekla Abel and Alejandra TejedoKlaus Knodel and Antje BohnManfred Birke and Klaus Knodel and Gerhard Lange and Ugur YaramanciKlaus Knodel and Gerhard LangeManfred Birke and Klaus Knodel and Gerhard Lange and Ugur YaramanciUgur Yaramanci and Gerhard LangeKlaus Knodel and Ugur Yaramanci and Gerhard LangeManfred Birke

1 Introduction	p. 1
2 Preparatory Steps and Common Problems	p. 11
2.1 Placing of Orders and Order Handling	p. 11
2.2 Collection and Use of Existing Data	p. 12
2.3 Information Campaign and Permit Application	p. 14
2.4 Mobilization and Demobilization	p. 16
2.5 Land Surveying	p. 17
2.6 Quality Assurance and Reporting	p. 21
3 Remote Sensing	p. 23
3.1 Aerial Photography	p. 23
3.1.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 23
3.1.2 Applications	p. 24
3.1.3 Fundamentals	p. 25
3.1.4 Instruments and Film	p. 27
3.1.5 Survey Practice	p. 34
3.1.6 Interpretation of Aerial Photographs	p. 36
3.1.7 Quality Assurance	p. 43
3.1.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 46
3.1.9 Examples	p. 47
3.2 Photogrammetry	p. 73
3.2.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 73
3.2.2 Applications	p. 74
3.2.3 Fundamentals	p. 74
3.2.4 Instruments	p. 81
3.2.5 Survey Practice	p. 82
3.2.6 Processing and Interpretation of Data	p. 82
3.2.7 Quality Assurance	p. 85
3.2.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 86
3.2.9 Examples	p. 86
3.3 Nonphotographic Imaging from Aircraft and Space-borne Platforms	p. 97
3.3.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 97
3.3.2 Applications	p. 99
3.3.3 Fundamentals	p. 100
3.3.4 Instruments	p. 115
3.3.5 Survey Practice	p. 124
3.3.6 Processing and Interpretation of Data	p. 125
3.3.7 Quality Assurance	p. 134
3.3.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 136
3.3.9 Examples	p. 137
4 Geophysics	p. 161
4.1 Magnetic Methods	p. 161
4.1.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 161
4.1.2 Applications	p. 162
4.1.3 Fundamentals	p. 162
4.1.4 Instruments	p. 168
4.1.5 Survey Practice	p. 170
4.1.6 Processing and Interpretation of the Measured Data	p. 171
4.1.7 Quality Assurance	p. 174
4.1.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 175
4.1.9 Examples	p. 176
4.2 Gravity Methods	p. 185
4.2.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 185
4.2.2 Applications	p. 186
4.2.3 Fundamentals	p. 186
4.2.4 Instruments	p. 191
4.2.5 Survey Practice	p. 192
4.2.6 Processing and Interpretation of the Measured Data	p. 195
4.2.7 Quality Assurance	p. 197
4.2.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 198
4.2.9 Examples	p. 199
4.3 Direct Current Resistivity Methods	p. 205
4.3.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 205
4.3.2 Applications	p. 207
4.3.3 Fundamentals	p. 207
4.3.4 Instruments	p. 215
4.3.5 Survey Practice	p. 216
4.3.6 Processing and Interpretation of Measured Data	p. 221
4.3.7 Quality Assurance	p. 225
4.3.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 227
4.3.9 Examples	p. 228
4.4 Electromagnetic Methods	p. 239
4.4.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 239
4.4.2 Applications	p. 243
4.4.3 Fundamentals	p. 243
4.4.4 Instruments	p. 255
4.4.5 Survey Practice	p. 260
4.4.6 Processing and Interpretation of Measured Data	p. 263
4.4.7 Quality Assurance	p. 266
4.4.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 269
4.4.9 Examples	p. 270
4.5 Ground Penetrating Radar	p. 283
4.5.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 283
4.5.2 Applications	p. 285
4.5.3 Fundamentals	p. 286
4.5.4 Instruments	p. 297
4.5.5 Survey Practice	p. 300
4.5.6 Processing, Presentation and Interpretation of the Measured Data	p. 302
4.5.7 Quality Assurance	p. 303
4.5.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 304
4.5.9 Examples	p. 305
4.5.10 Special Applications and New Developments	p. 316
4.6 Seismic Methods	p. 337
4.6.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 337
4.6.2 Applications	p. 340
4.6.3 Fundamentals	p. 341
4.6.3.1 Propagation of Elastic Waves	p. 341
4.6.3.2 Elastic Parameters and Seismic Velocities	p. 343
4.6.3.3 Reflection, Transmission and Diffraction	p. 347
4.6.3.4 Surface Waves	p. 350
4.6.3.5 Seismic Resolution	p. 352
4.6.4 Instruments	p. 354
4.6.4.1 Seismic Sources	p. 354
4.6.4.2 Seismic Sensors	p. 359
4.6.4.3 Seismic Recording Instruments	p. 362
4.6.5 Seismic Refraction Surveying	p. 363
4.6.5.1 Principle of the Method	p. 363
4.6.5.2 Survey Practice	p. 364
4.6.5.3 Processing and Interpretation	p. 365
4.6.5.4 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 369
4.6.6 Seismic Reflection Surveying	p. 369
4.6.6.1 Principle of the Method	p. 369
4.6.6.2 Survey Practice	p. 373
4.6.6.3 Processing and Interpretation of Measured Data	p. 376
4.6.6.4 Quality Assurance	p. 382
4.6.6.5 Personnel, Equipment and Time Needed	p. 383
4.6.7 Borehole Seismic Methods	p. 384
4.6.7.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 384
4.6.7.2 Applications	p. 384
4.6.7.3 Fundamentals	p. 385
4.6.7.4 Instruments	p. 386
4.6.7.5 Survey Practice	p. 386
4.6.7.6 Processing and Interpretation of Measured Data	p. 387
4.6.7.7 Quality Assurance	p. 387
4.6.7.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 388
4.6.8 Examples	p. 388
4.7 Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance	p. 403
4.7.1 Principle of the Method	p. 403
4.7.2 Applications	p. 404
4.7.3 Fundamentals	p. 404
4.7.4 Instruments	p. 408
4.7.5 Survey Practice	p. 410
4.7.6 Processing and Interpretation of the Measured Data	p. 413
4.7.7 Quality Assurance	p. 415
4.7.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 416
4.7.9 Examples	p. 416
4.8 Borehole Logging	p. 431
4.8.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 431
4.8.2 Applications	p. 433
4.8.3 Slimhole Logging Equipment and Logging Methods	p. 434
4.8.3.1 Radioactivity Logging Methods	p. 436
4.8.3.2 Electrical Methods	p. 438
4.8.3.3 Electromagnetic Methods	p. 440
4.8.3.4 Acoustic Methods	p. 440
4.8.3.5 Optical Methods	p. 441
4.8.3.6 Methods for Determining the Properties of Drilling Fluids (Fluid Logs)	p. 441
4.8.3.7 Methods for Determining Borehole Properties	p. 443
4.8.4 Survey Practice, Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 443
4.8.5 Quality Assurance	p. 447
4.8.6 Processing and Interpretation of the Logging Data and Examples	p. 449
4.8.7 Expected Future Developments	p. 470
4.9 Geophysical In-situ Groundwater and Soil Monitoring	p. 475
4.9.1 Principle of the Methods	p. 475
4.9.2 Applications	p. 477
4.9.3 Fundamentals	p. 478
4.9.3.1 Environmental Parameters	p. 478
4.9.3.2 Optical Spectroscopy	p. 481
4.9.3.3 EM Monitoring	p. 484
4.9.4 Instruments	p. 488
4.9.5 Field work	p. 492
4.9.6 Processing	p. 493
4.9.7 Quality Assurance	p. 494
4.9.8 Personnel, Equipment, Time Needed	p. 494
4.9.9 Examples	p. 495
5 Geological, Hydrogeological, Geochemical and Microbiological Investigations	p. 507
5.1 Methods for Characterizing the Geological Setting	p. 507
5.1.1 Geologic Field Observations	p. 511
5.1.2 Trenching	p. 519
5.1.3 Drilling	p. 524
5.1.4 Direct Push Technology	p. 540
5.2 Methods for Characterizing the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Conditions	p. 567
5.2.1 Precipitation	p. 569
5.2.2 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration	p. 581
5.2.3 Runoff	p. 590
5.2.4 Infiltration	p. 603
5.2.5 Groundwater Recharge	p. 612
5.2.6 Groundwater Monitoring	p. 619
5.2.7 Determination of Hydraulic Parameters	p. 643
5.2.7.1 Infiltrometer and Permeameter Tests	p. 649
5.2.7.2 Pumping Tests	p. 681
5.2.7.3 Laboratory Methods	p. 711
5.3 Methods for Characterizing the Geochemical and Microbiological Conditions	p. 749
5.3.1 Sampling and Analysis of Groundwater and Surface Water	p. 758
5.3.1.1 Planning and Preparation of Work	p. 759
5.3.1.2 Groundwater Sampling	p. 768
5.3.1.3 Groundwater Analysis	p. 778
5.3.2 Sampling and Analysis of Soil, Rock, Stream and Lacustrine Sediments	p. 785
5.3.2.1 Planning and Preparation of Work	p. 786
5.3.2.2 Sampling of Soil, Rock, Stream and Lacustrine Sediments	p. 790
5.3.2.3 Analysis of Soil, Rock, Stream and Lacustrine Sediments	p. 797
5.3.3 Sampling and Analysis of Soil Gas and Landfill Gas	p. 807
5.3.3.1 Planning and Preparation of Work	p. 810
5.3.3.2 Sampling and Analysis of Soil Gas and Landfill Gas	p. 811
5.3.4 Methods for Chemical Analysis used in Geochemical Investigations	p. 816
5.3.5 Laboratory Methods for the Determination of Migration Parameters	p. 823
5.3.5.1 Basic Theory of Sorption	p. 824
5.3.5.2 Basic Theory of Transport	p. 830
5.3.5.3 Sampling and Preparation of Soil or Sediment for the Determination of Migration Parameter Values	p. 831
5.3.5.4 Batch Tests	p. 832
5.3.5.5 Column Experiments	p. 838
5.3.5.6 Clays and Clay Minerals	p. 849
5.3.5.7 Cation Exchange Capacity	p. 853
5.3.5.8 Carbonates	p. 862
5.3.5.9 Iron and Manganese Oxides	p. 867
5.3.5.10 Organic Carbon	p. 871
5.3.6 Methods to Evaluate Biodegradation at Contaminated Sites	p. 876
5.3.6.1 Microbial Processes in the Subsurface	p. 877
5.3.6.2 Assessment Methods	p. 883
5.3.6.3 Case Studies	p. 892
5.4 Interpretation of Geological, Hydrogeological, and Geochemical Results	p. 941
5.4.1 Statistical Methods	p. 941
5.4.1.1 Univariate Statistics	p. 942
5.4.1.2 Multivariate Statistics	p. 952
5.4.1.3 Time Series Analysis	p. 958
5.4.1.4 Geostatistics and Interpolation of Spatial Data	p. 959
5.4.1.5 Specific Tests of Hydrogeochemical Data	p. 960
5.4.2 Conceptual Model	p. 962
5.4.3 Groundwater Flow Modeling	p. 1001
5.4.3.1 Fundamentals of Groundwater Flow Modeling	p. 1002
5.4.3.2 Programs	p. 1009
5.4.3.3 Guide for Construction and Use of a Groundwater Model	p. 1014
5.4.4 Contaminant Transport Modeling	p. 1020
5.4.4.1 Fundamentals of Transport Modeling	p. 1021
5.4.4.2 Model Application	p. 1041
6 Integration of Investigation Results	p. 1053
6.1 Data Fusion	p. 1054
6.1.1 Reprocessing and New Data Presentation	p. 1055
6.1.2 Geographic Information Systems	p. 1061
6.1.2.1 Fundamentals	p. 1063
6.1.2.2 Hardware, Network, Software, and Manpower	p. 1067
6.1.2.3 Data Acquisition and Analysis	p. 1072
6.1.2.4 Examples	p. 1075
6.1.3 Other Data Fusion Examples	p. 1091
6.2 Joint Interpretation	p. 1099
6.2.1 Qualitative and Semiquantitative Approach	p. 1099
6.2.2 Quantitative Approach	p. 1150
6.2.2.1 Joint Quantitative Interpretation of Several Geophysical Measurements and Core Analysis Results	p. 1050
6.2.2.2 Joint Inversion	p. 1059
6.2.2.3 Joint Interpretation Using Statistical Methods	p. 1063
Glossary	p. 1195
Abbreviations	p. 1319
Units of Measure	p. 1333
SI Prefixes	p. 1335
None SI Units	p. 1335
Physical Constants	p. 1336
Mathematical Symbols and Constants	p. 1337
Subject Index	p. 1339

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