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Summary
Summary
Expounding on the results of the author's work with the US Army Research Office, DARPA, the Office of Naval Research, and various defense industry contractors, Governing Lethal Behavior in Autonomous Robots explores how to produce an "artificial conscience" in a new class of robots, humane-oids, which are robots that can potentially perform more ethically than humans in the battlefield. The author examines the philosophical basis, motivation, theory, and design recommendations for the implementation of an ethical control and reasoning system in autonomous robot systems, taking into account the Laws of War and Rules of Engagement.
The book presents robot architectural design recommendations for
Post facto suppression of unethical behavior, Behavioral design that incorporates ethical constraints from the onset, The use of affective functions as an adaptive component in the event of unethical action, and A mechanism that identifies and advises operators regarding their ultimate responsibility for the deployment of autonomous systems.It also examines why soldiers fail in battle regarding ethical decisions; discusses the opinions of the public, researchers, policymakers, and military personnel on the use of lethality by autonomous systems; provides examples that illustrate autonomous systems' ethical use of force; and includes relevant Laws of War.
Helping ensure that warfare is conducted justly with the advent of autonomous robots, this book shows that the first steps toward creating robots that not only conform to international law but outperform human soldiers in their ethical capacity are within reach in the future. It supplies the motivation, philosophy, formalisms, representational requirements, architectural design criteria, recommendations, and test scenarios to design and construct an autonomous robotic system capable of ethically using lethal force.
Ron Arkin was quoted in a November 2010 New York Times article about robots in the military.Table of Contents
Preface | p. xi |
Acknowledgments | p. xix |
Chapter 1 Introduction | p. 1 |
Chapter 2 Trends toward Lethality | p. 7 |
2.1 Weaponized Unmanned Ground Vehicles | p. 10 |
2.2 Weaponized Unmanned Aerial Vehicles | p. 21 |
2.3 Prospects | p. 26 |
Chapter 3 Human Failings in the Battlefield | p. 29 |
Chapter 4 Related Philosophical Thought | p. 37 |
Chapter 5 What People Think: Opinions on Lethal Autonomous Systems | p. 49 |
5.1 Survey Background | p. 50 |
5.2 Response | p. 51 |
5.3 Comparative Results | p. 52 |
5.4 Discussion | p. 55 |
Chapter 6 Formalization for Ethical Control | p. 57 |
6.1 Formal Methods for Describing Behavior | p. 58 |
6.1.1 Range of Responses: R | p. 58 |
6.1.2 The Stimulus Domain: S | p. 58 |
6.1.3 The Behavioral Mapping: ß | p. 60 |
6.2 Ethical Behavior | p. 62 |
Chapter 7 Specific Issues for Lethality: What to Represent | p. 69 |
7.1 What Is Required | p. 70 |
7.2 Laws of War | p. 71 |
7.3 Rules of Engagement | p. 81 |
7.3.1 Standing Rules of Engagement | p. 82 |
7.3.2 Rules of Engagement (Non-SROE) | p. 84 |
7.3.3 Rules for the Use of Force | p. 86 |
7.3.4 ROE for Peace Enforcement Missions | p. 91 |
Chapter 8 Representational Choices: How to Represent Ethics in a Lethal Robot | p. 93 |
8.1 Underpinnings | p. 95 |
8.2 Generalism-Reasoning from Moral Principles | p. 99 |
8.2.1 Deontic Logic | p. 99 |
8.2.2 Utilitarian Methods | p. 102 |
8.2.3 Kantian Rule-Based Methods | p. 103 |
8.3 Particularism: Case-Based Reasoning | p. 104 |
8.4 Ethical Decision Making | p. 108 |
Chapter 9 Architectural Considerations for Governing Lethality | p. 115 |
9.1 Architectural Requirements | p. 119 |
Chapter 10 Design Options | p. 125 |
10.1 Ethical Governor | p. 127 |
10.2 Ethical Behavioral Control | p. 133 |
10.3 Ethical Adaptor | p. 138 |
10.3.1 After-Action Reflection | p. 138 |
10.3.2 Affective Restriction of Behavior | p. 140 |
10.4 Responsibility Advisor | p. 143 |
10.4.1 Command Authorization for a Mission Involving Autonomous Lethal Force | p. 146 |
10.4.2 Design for Mission Command Authorization | p. 148 |
10.4.3 The Use of Ethical Overrides | p. 149 |
10.4.4 Design for Overriding Ethical Control | p. 152 |
Chapter 11 Example Scenarios for the Ethical Use of Force | p. 155 |
11.1 Taliban Muster in Cemetery | p. 157 |
11.2 "Apache Rules the Night" | p. 162 |
11.3 Korean Demilitarized Zone | p. 167 |
11.4 Urban Sniper | p. 171 |
Chapter 12 A Prototype Implementation | p. 177 |
12.1 Infrastructure | p. 177 |
12.2 A Prototype Implementation of the Ethical Governor | p. 178 |
12.2.1 Ethical Constraints | p. 179 |
12.2.2 Evidential Reasoning | p. 182 |
12.2.3 Constraint Application | p. 182 |
12.2.4 Proportionality and Battlefield Carnage | p. 185 |
12.2.5 Demonstration Scenario Overview | p. 188 |
12.2.6 Scenario 1-Suppressing Unethical Behavior | p. 190 |
12.2.7 Scenario 2-Maintaining Ethical Behavior While Minimizing Collateral Damage | p. 192 |
12.3 Implementing the Responsibility Advisor | p. 196 |
12.3.1 Establishing Responsibility When Tasking an Autonomous System Capable of Lethal Force | p. 196 |
12.3.2 Run-Time Responsibility Advising and Operator Overrides | p. 202 |
12.3.2.1 Continuous Presentation of the Status of the Ethical Governor | p. 203 |
12.3.2.2 Negative Overrides: Denying Permission to Fire in the Presence of Obligating Constraints | p. 205 |
12.3.2.3 Positive Overrides: Granting Permission to Fire in the Presence of Forbidding Ethical Constraints | p. 206 |
12.4 Summary | p. 209 |
Epilogue | p. 211 |
References | p. 213 |
Appendix A Relevant Laws of War | p. 225 |
Appendix B Acronyms | p. 243 |
Appendix C Notation | p. 245 |
Index | p. 247 |