Channels, propagation and antennas for mobile communications

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Title:

Personal Author:

Vaughan, Rodney

Publication Information:

London : The Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2003

ISBN:

9780852960844

Subject Term:

Antennas (Electronics)

Radio wave propagation

Mobile communication systems

Added Author:

Bach Andersen, J.

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Library	Item Barcode	Call Number	Material Type	Item Category 1	Status
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Written by two leading experts in the field, this exceptional book introduces the reader to the principles, theory and applications of physical layer wireless/mobile communications. In the area of wireless, the antennas, propagation and the radio channel used are inter-related; this book offers an explanation of that relationship, which is fundamental to the development of systems with high spectral efficiency.

Channels, Propagation and Antennas for Mobile Communications emphasises the basic principles needed to establish an understanding of this technology. However, the tools required - such as the mathematics and statistics - are treated in the manner of a practical handbook, avoiding detailed derivations. The reader will develop a clear insight into the physics and effects of multipath and the use of multipath channels for communications. Propagation modelling, simulation and measurement, scattering, antenna principles, array antennas, adaptive antennas and smart antennas are also covered.

This book will be a valuable reference for senior undergraduates and postgraduates in electrical engineering and communications. Practising design engineers, systems designers and engineering managers will also gain a sound understanding of the field.

rt antennas are also covered.

Author Notes

Rodney Vaughan is Senior Research Engineer at Industrial Research Limited (IRL), New Zealand
Jorgen Bach Andersen is the director of the Center for PersonKommunikation (CPK) and Professor of Wireless Communications at Aalborg University in Denmark

Preface	p. xxvii
1 Background and introduction to mobile communications	p. 1
1.1 Three elements in mobile communications	p. 1
1.2 Original mobile antennas: firecrackers, clotheslines and chicken wire	p. 2
1.3 Mobile and personal communications systems	p. 9
1.3.1 Ongoing visions for systems	p. 9
1.3.2 Traffic estimate example	p. 10
1.3.3 Radio data networks	p. 13
1.3.4 Biological effects	p. 13
1.4 Modern multi-user system requirements	p. 14
1.4.1 System spectral efficiency	p. 14
1.4.2 Cells for frequency re-use	p. 14
1.4.3 Power variation in wideband channels	p. 21
1.4.4 Multiple access techniques	p. 21
1.4.5 Duplex techniques for two-way channels	p. 23
1.5 Usage and restrictions of the radio spectrum	p. 24
1.5.1 The rule-makers	p. 24
1.5.2 Issues in mobile communications	p. 25
1.5.3 Radio-link issues for research	p. 25
1.6 Mobile channel terminology	p. 25
1.6.1 Nonlinearities	p. 28
1.6.2 Aspects of capacity, channel efficiency, modulation and coding	p. 29
1.6.3 A note on reciprocity	p. 33
1.7 Effect of multipath on the digital channel	p. 33
1.7.1 Short-term multipath dominating the mobile channel behaviour	p. 33
1.7.2 Fast fading of the analogue channel	p. 34
1.7.3 The effect of fading on the digital channel: irreducible bit-error ratio	p. 35
1.8 Signal processing for mitigation of the multipath effects	p. 37
1.8.1 Diversity basics for fading channels	p. 38
1.8.2 Basic diversity	p. 40
1.9 Example analysis of simple digital wireless link	p. 48
1.9.1 Free space path loss	p. 50
1.9.2 Non-line-of-sight	p. 54
1.9.3 Measurement-based indoor/outdoor path loss	p. 56
1.9.4 Link example	p. 57
1.10 Summary	p. 59
1.11 References	p. 59
1.12 Other reading	p. 61
2 Multipath propagation in mobile communications	p. 63
2.1 Multipath reception and transfer function model	p. 63
2.1.1 Polarisation of multipath fields	p. 63
2.1.2 Fields summed by an antenna	p. 64
2.1.3 Moving receiver	p. 65
2.1.4 Baseband equivalent transfer function from discrete scatterers	p. 67
2.1.5 Fourier model using continuous scattering medium	p. 68
2.1.6 Resolvability of scatterers	p. 69
2.1.7 Time domain representation	p. 70
2.1.8 Polarisation and antenna pattern effect	p. 71
2.2 Statistical basis of transfer functions: correlation and spectra	p. 74
2.2.1 Channel correlation functions	p. 75
2.2.2 Power profiles	p. 80
2.2.3 Averaged transfer function of channel: channel gain	p. 83
2.2.4 Envelope, complex signal, and power signal correlations	p. 83
2.3 References	p. 87
3 Basic multipath mechanisms	p. 89
3.1 Reflection from a smooth, planar surface	p. 89
3.1.1 Basic configuration	p. 89
3.1.2 Sum of vertical and horizontal fields at the receiver	p. 91
3.1.3 Norton surface wave	p. 91
3.1.4 Sum of direct and reflected space waves at grazing incidence	p. 92
3.1.5 Fresnel coefficients	p. 93
3.1.6 Example of Brewster angle effect with a moving receiver	p. 94
3.1.7 Phase of the reflection at normal incidence	p. 95
3.1.8 Circular polarisation	p. 96
3.1.9 Image model	p. 98
3.1.10 Grazing incidence	p. 99
3.1.11 Propagation effects at grazing incidence	p. 99
3.1.12 Distance dependence at grazing incidence	p. 100
3.1.13 Frequency dependence at grazing incidence	p. 101
3.1.14 Example of distance dependence: outdoor cell	p. 103
3.1.15 Fade lengths with distance	p. 104
3.2 Propagation along a rough surface	p. 105
3.2.1 Kirchhoff's solution for scattering from a rough surface	p. 105
3.2.2 Perturbation theory for the field scattered from a rough dielectric medium	p. 115
3.2.3 Effect of surface roughness on diffuse field	p. 118
3.3 Diffraction	p. 123
3.3.1 UTD diffraction by a wedge	p. 125
3.3.2 Transition zone boundary	p. 132
3.3.3 UTD transition zone diffraction	p. 133
3.4 Ray tracing and radiosity	p. 142
3.4.1 Ray tracing	p. 143
3.4.2 Ray launching	p. 144
3.4.3 Radiosity or diffuse scattering	p. 144
3.4.4 An example of a street junction	p. 145
3.5 References	p. 146
4 Propagation modelling	p. 149
4.1 Propagation in urban environments above rooftops	p. 149
4.1.1 Okumura-Hata case for urban environments	p. 149
4.1.2 2D diffraction models	p. 151
4.1.3 Bridged knife edges	p. 154
4.1.4 COST231 model	p. 154
4.1.5 A comparison of methods	p. 157
4.2 Propagation in rural and hilly terrain	p. 157
4.2.1 Open undulating terrain	p. 158
4.2.2 An integral equation formulation	p. 158
4.2.3 Combining terrain and building effects, the parabolic method	p. 163
4.3 3D effects	p. 164
4.4 Indoor modelling	p. 165
4.4.1 Parametric models	p. 165
4.5 Time domain features	p. 167
4.5.1 Rural environments	p. 167
4.5.2 Urban environments	p. 170
4.5.3 Indoor environments	p. 171
4.6 Angular domain features	p. 173
4.6.1 Rural environments	p. 173
4.6.2 Urban environments	p. 174
4.6.3 Indoor environments	p. 178
4.7 References	p. 178
5 Short-term channel behaviour from the two-path model	p. 181
5.1 Introduction	p. 181
5.2 Static terminal in a static two-source scenario	p. 182
5.2.1 Impulse response	p. 182
5.2.2 Delay time moments	p. 183
5.2.3 Transfer function	p. 184
5.2.4 Group delay	p. 186
5.2.5 Mean group delay	p. 188
5.2.6 Non-minimum phase case	p. 188
5.2.7 Effect of finite pulse width on delay spread	p. 188
5.2.8 Probability functions	p. 193
5.2.9 Effect of finite bandwidth on the fading channel	p. 195
5.2.10 Interpretation of negative group delay	p. 198
5.2.11 Coherence bandwidth	p. 203
5.2.12 Coherence bandwidth-delay spread product	p. 205
5.3 Dispersion metrics from time-frequency theory for the static frequency-selective channel	p. 209
5.3.1 Terminology	p. 209
5.3.2 Time-frequency distribution discussion	p. 209
5.3.3 Local approximation of transfer function	p. 218
5.3.4 Mean delay for a signal in a channel	p. 221
5.3.5 Dispersion in the two-path model	p. 222
5.3.6 Summary	p. 228
5.4 Moving terminal in a static two-source scenario	p. 229
5.4.1 Two-dimensional transfer function	p. 229
5.4.2 Effect of finite bandwidth on the two-dimensional power transfer function	p. 232
5.4.3 Doppler frequency moments	p. 233
5.5 Statistics of the 'few-path' model	p. 234
5.5.1 Three-path model	p. 234
5.5.2 The few-path model	p. 235
5.6 References	p. 242
6 Short-term behaviour of many-path models and scenarios	p. 245
6.1 Many-path model	p. 245
6.1.1 Moving terminal in a static many-path scenario: linear systems model	p. 246
6.1.2 Bello functions in mobile communications	p. 247
6.1.3 Finite bandwidth effects on the many-path impulse response	p. 248
6.1.4 Finite length effect: Fourier angular resolution from a mobile trajectory	p. 251
6.2 Derivatives of the transfer function	p. 252
6.2.1 Phase derivatives: group delay and random FM	p. 252
6.2.2 Group delay distribution	p. 256
6.2.3 Group delay excursions with mobile position	p. 256
6.2.4 Spatial gradient of power	p. 259
6.2.5 Dynamic two-path model	p. 261
6.3 Doppler moments	p. 263
6.3.1 Basic definition	p. 264
6.3.2 Angle of arrival from a cluster of scatterers	p. 268
6.4 Correlation spacings	p. 271
6.4.1 Correlation distance-Doppler spread product	p. 271
6.4.2 Correlation distance for directional antennas or scenarios	p. 274
6.4.3 Frequency correlation	p. 280
6.4.4 Combined space and frequency correlation	p. 280
6.5 Integrating the transfer function over finite bandwidths and distances	p. 282
6.5.1 Effect of integrating power over finite bandwidth	p. 282
6.5.2 Effect of integrating power over a finite distance	p. 286
6.5.3 Continuous form: space and frequency integration	p. 293
6.6 Examples of modelled scatter distributions	p. 293
6.6.1 Single source	p. 294
6.6.2 Distributed line source distribution with constant amplitude and phase	p. 294
6.6.3 Distributed line source distribution with random phase	p. 295
6.6.4 Distributed circular line source with constant amplitude, phase and delay	p. 296
6.6.5 Discrete uniform scenario, uniform delay (Clarke scenario)	p. 297
6.6.6 Clarke scenario with single phase wave delay	p. 297
6.6.7 Continuous uniform scenario with uniform phase and exponential delay profile	p. 299
6.6.8 Discrete uniform scenario with uniform phase and exponential delay profile	p. 299
6.7 Averaged scenario models	p. 300
6.7.1 Basic formulation	p. 300
6.7.2 Cross-polar discrimination (XPD)	p. 302
6.7.3 Uncorrelated scatterers	p. 308
6.7.4 Gaussian scenario model	p. 312
6.7.5 Laplacian scenario model	p. 312
6.7.6 Vehicular mobile	p. 313
6.7.7 Personal terminals	p. 314
6.7.8 Base stations	p. 315
6.7.9 Mobile satellite	p. 317
6.8 A diffuse model for outdoor environments	p. 320
6.8.1 Parameters of model	p. 320
6.8.2 Directionality in the simple ellipse model	p. 322
6.9 References	p. 325
7 Aspects of simulation and measurement	p. 327
7.1 Short-term fading simulation	p. 327
7.1.1 Model for narrowband signals	p. 327
7.1.2 A simple Matlab simulation	p. 331
7.1.3 Discretisation options for the uniform scenario	p. 333
7.1.4 Signal repetition distance (cyclostationarity from simulations)	p. 335
7.1.5 Delay spread example with path-loss effect	p. 338
7.2 Reference parameters for simulations	p. 340
7.2.1 Basic pdf for incident power	p. 340
7.2.2 Basic received signal	p. 340
7.2.3 Averaging	p. 341
7.2.4 Statistical quantities for signals from a uniform scenario	p. 342
7.2.5 Two signals	p. 343
7.2.6 Moments	p. 346
7.2.7 Joint pdfs of two signals	p. 347
7.2.8 Joint envelope and joint phase pdfs	p. 348
7.2.9 Envelope correlation coefficients	p. 350
7.2.10 Phase correlation coefficient	p. 351
7.2.11 Signal dynamics for moving receiver	p. 352
7.2.12 Level crossing problems	p. 353
7.2.13 Level crossings of diversity combined signals	p. 354
7.2.14 Fade duration	p. 355
7.2.15 Random FM spectrum and rate	p. 357
7.2.16 Level crossing rate of random FM	p. 358
7.3 Direct generation of channel functions	p. 359
7.3.1 Gaussian independent samples	p. 359
7.3.2 Gaussian correlated samples	p. 360
7.3.3 General correlation matrix case	p. 362
7.3.4 Moving average technique for generating correlated signals	p. 364
7.3.5 Generation of transfer functions in the time (space) domain	p. 365
7.3.6 Generation of transfer functions in the frequency domain	p. 366
7.3.7 Continuous delay profile	p. 369
7.3.8 Discrete delay profile	p. 369
7.4 Envelope-phase relations for fading channels	p. 370
7.4.1 Frequency-selective channel (network theory)	p. 371
7.4.2 Pole-zero description of mobile signals	p. 372
7.4.3 Zero description of fading signal	p. 376
7.4.4 Application to single variable modulation correction in narrowband systems	p. 377
7.4.5 Channel characterisation using the Hilbert relations	p. 378
7.4.6 Delay spread limits from magnitude-only frequency transfer function	p. 379
7.4.7 Angular distribution from spatial tranfer function	p. 381
7.4.8 Suppressing the effect of the phase ambiguity in Hilbert relations	p. 383
7.4.9 Summary	p. 384
7.5 Testing the multipath model--the prediction of short-term fading	p. 384
7.5.1 Introduction	p. 384
7.5.2 Using the propagation model for signal prediction	p. 385
7.5.3 Noise-free case: deterministic method	p. 387
7.5.4 Additive noise case including subspace/super-resolution methods	p. 391
7.5.5 Real-world experimental results	p. 398
7.6 Correlation analysis for measured narrowband signals	p. 400
7.6.1 Estimating the correlation coefficient of Gaussian signals from finite samples	p. 400
7.6.2 Envelope correlations	p. 403
7.6.3 Demeaning of envelopes	p. 414
7.7 Wideband channels: channel sounding	p. 419
7.7.1 Full channel sounding	p. 420
7.7.2 Partial channel sounding by rectangular pulse	p. 422
7.7.3 Super-resolution by deconvolution	p. 424
7.8 References	p. 428
8 Antenna principles	p. 435
8.1 Basic antenna parameters and elements	p. 435
8.1.1 Directivity and gain from patterns	p. 435
8.1.2 Antenna efficiency factors	p. 443
8.1.3 Radiation resistance from the Poynting vector	p. 448
8.1.4 Relation between directivity, effective area, and complex height	p. 449
8.1.5 Antenna temperature	p. 452
8.1.6 Noise figure contributions from connections to a receiver	p. 455
8.1.7 Groundplane principles for antennas	p. 460
8.1.8 Generic elements: dipoles and monopoles	p. 461
8.1.9 Fields of a current distribution	p. 466
8.1.10 Radiation and ohmic resistance for dipoles	p. 480
8.1.11 Ohmic loss for wires	p. 488
8.1.12 Radiation and ohmic resistance for small loops	p. 492
8.1.13 Summary of field quantities and relations	p. 497
8.2 Compact elements	p. 501
8.2.1 Introduction to antenna Q from network considerations	p. 501
8.2.2 Basic limitations of small antennas in isolation	p. 506
8.2.3 Bandwidth enhancement of small antennas	p. 509
8.2.4 Goubau antenna	p. 515
8.2.5 Patch antennas	p. 519
8.2.6 Antennas on a handset (free space)	p. 532
8.2.7 Antennas on a handset near a person	p. 533
8.2.8 Handset antennas in a random environment	p. 535
8.3 Antennas with circular polarisation	p. 538
8.3.1 Introduction	p. 538
8.3.2 Circular polarisation parameters and relations	p. 540
8.3.3 Patterns from space loss function for satellite links	p. 544
8.3.4 Circularly polarised patch elements	p. 546
8.3.5 Distributed directivity for mobile-to-geostationary satellites	p. 548
8.3.6 Circularly polarised, scanning-mode helix	p. 550
8.3.7 Fan patterns for vehicular mobile satellite	p. 554
8.4 Diversity antennas	p. 554
8.4.1 Introduction	p. 554
8.4.2 Signal combining in diversity	p. 556
8.4.3 Signal statistics of combined signals	p. 564
8.4.4 Effect of correlated noise (interference)	p. 571
8.4.5 Incident fields and antenna conditions for diversity	p. 573
8.4.6 Antenna patterns for diversity	p. 577
8.4.7 Space diversity	p. 578
8.4.8 Angle diversity	p. 579
8.4.9 Polarisation and field components	p. 585
8.4.10 Energy density in the multipath field	p. 585
8.4.11 Gain reduction caused by closely spaced elements	p. 588
8.4.12 Examples with measurement techniques	p. 600
8.4.13 Example: monopoles on a groundplane	p. 600
8.4.14 Example: sloping monopoles on a groundplane	p. 607
8.4.15 Example: patch antennas on a groundplane	p. 615
8.4.16 Example: switched diversity by switched parasitic elements	p. 617
8.4.17 Example: polarisation diversity	p. 620
8.5 References	p. 623
9 Array antennas in a multipath environment	p. 629
9.1 Introduction	p. 629
9.2 Adaptive antennas in cellular networks	p. 631
9.2.1 Interference rejection	p. 631
9.2.2 Gain enhancement	p. 639
9.2.3 Discussion	p. 641
9.3 Multi-element arrays: MIMO systems	p. 642
9.3.1 Singular value decomposition, SVD	p. 642
9.3.2 Maximum gain and transmit-receive diversity for a known channel	p. 645
9.3.3 Maximum gain and transmit-receive diversity for an unknown channel	p. 647
9.3.4 Summary of gain and diversity for multi-arrays	p. 648
9.3.5 Spectral efficiency of parallel channels	p. 650
9.3.6 Effect of correlations and pinholes	p. 654
9.4 Outage for optimally combined receiving arrays with many interferers	p. 659
9.4.1 Introduction: analogue and digital outage	p. 659
9.4.2 Statistical model of receiving array with interferers	p. 660
9.4.3 SINR for a larger number of interferers than array elements	p. 663
9.4.4 Cumulative distribution function for SINR	p. 665
9.5 Capacity outage for transmit and receive arrays	p. 669
9.5.1 Introduction	p. 669
9.5.2 Statistical model including correlated, Rician channels with different SNRs	p. 672
9.5.3 Method for computing the approximate cdf of capacity	p. 672
9.5.4 Asymptotic expansion for cdf	p. 674
9.5.5 Asymptotic capacity and variance for Rayleigh channels	p. 675
9.5.6 Coefficients for capacity cdf with percentile outage for Rayleigh, uncorrelated channels	p. 676
9.6 References	p. 680
Appendix A Field strength and path loss	p. 683
Appendix B Basic statistics for mobile communications	p. 685
B.1 Probability and statistical independence	p. 685
B.2 Probability density function: fundamental theorem and transformation	p. 685
B.3 Expectation and covariance	p. 686
B.4 Correlation (autocorrelation) and ergodicity	p. 687
B.5 Correlation functions and a deterministic channel	p. 688
B.6 Wide-sense stationarity (WSS)	p. 689
B.7 Power spectrum	p. 689
B.8 Cross-correlations	p. 690
B.9 Covariance spectrum	p. 691
B.10 Uncorrelated noise example	p. 691
B.11 Variance of mean estimate	p. 692
B.12 Maximum likelihood and the Cramer-Rao bound for the variance of an estimate	p. 692
B.13 Chi-square test for pdf	p. 695
B.14 Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test for cumulative density function	p. 696
B.15 References	p. 696
Appendix C Gaussian-derived distributions in mobile communications	p. 697
C.1 Gaussian	p. 697
C.2 Rayleigh	p. 700
C.3 Rice	p. 704
C.4 Rice envelope	p. 706
C.5 Calculating the Marcum Q function	p. 710
C.6 Rice phase	p. 712
C.7 Rice generalisations: Hoyt and Beckmann distributions	p. 712
C.8 Random phasor plus Rayleigh	p. 715
C.9 Lognormal	p. 715
C.9.1 Example: lognormal plus Rayleigh	p. 716
C.9.2 Relation between first moments	p. 716
C.9.3 Decibel units	p. 716
C.10 Suzuki	p. 719
C.11 Rice with lognormal mean (mixture distribution)	p. 720
C.12 Nakagami	p. 720
C.13 Gamma (chi-squared)	p. 721
C.14 Generalised gamma	p. 723
C.15 Additive mixtures with non-Gaussianity	p. 726
C.16 Middleton's Class A impulsive noise distribution	p. 727
C.17 Diversity distributions	p. 727
C.18 Multivariate Gaussian	p. 728
C.19 Chi-squared	p. 728
C.20 Maximum ratio combination of Rayleigh envelopes	p. 733
C.21 References	p. 733
Appendix D Fresnel zones	p. 735
Appendix E Group delay equivalence in the time and frequency domains	p. 737
E.1 Reference	p. 738
Index	p. 739

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