Terrestrial ecosystems

Covering the complexities and interconnected nature of the world, as well as the impact of mankind on the environment, this interdisciplinary book presents a holistic view of ecosystem function and is designed to help students understand and predict the environmental future of the Earth. The authors provide a complete view of the environment--from the Taiga Forests of interior Alaska to the desert plains of the Serengeti. While retaining the previous edition's basic four-part structure, the authors have reviewed every topic (and consulted the recent literature in each case) in order to present the most complete and accurate picture of the state of ecosystem studies today.

Part 1 Introduction	p. 1
Chapter 1 Development of Concepts in Ecosystem Science	p. 3
Why Study Ecosystems?	p. 3
Development of Ecosystem Concepts	p. 4
Delimiting the Ecosystem	p. 9
Components of Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 11
Chapter 2 Structure of Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 15
Introduction	p. 15
Distribution and Characteristics of Major Ecosystem Types	p. 15
Vegetation Type, Plant Structure, and Major Processes	p. 16
Soil Processes and Distribution of Soil Types	p. 19
Major Vegetation and Soil Types of the Earth	p. 22
Correlations Between Climate and Ecosystem Function	p. 27
Variation Within Large Climatic Regions	p. 30
Chapter 3 Measurement of Ecosystem Function I: The Carbon Balance	p. 33
Introduction	p. 33
The Carbon Balance of Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 33
Chapter 4 Measurement of Ecosystem Function II: Nutrient and Water Balances	p. 51
Introduction	p. 51
Nutrient and Water Balances	p. 52
Methods in Watershed-Ecosystem Studies	p. 53
Some Results from Watershed-Ecosystem Studies	p. 55
Studies on Responses to Disturbance	p. 60
Chapter 5 Additional Approaches to Analysis and Synthesis in Ecosystem Studies	p. 67
Introduction	p. 67
Analytical Methods	p. 67
Gradients in Ecosystem Processes over Space and Time	p. 73
Systems Analysis and Ecosystem Studies	p. 81
Computer Modeling: A Synthesis Tool for Ecosystem Studies	p. 87
Part 2 Mechanisms: Processes Controlling Ecosystem Structure and Function	p. 91
Chapter 6 Energy, Water, and Carbon Balances over Leaves	p. 93
Introduction	p. 93
The Energy, Carbon, and Water Balance of a Leaf	p. 94
Chemical and Latent Energy Exchanges	p. 94
Net Radiation	p. 103
Sensible Heat Exchange: Conduction and Convection	p. 103
Structural and Physiological Adaptations	p. 104
Leaf Structure and Function in Major Ecosystem Types	p. 109
Chapter 7 Water Use and Water Balances in Ecosystems	p. 113
Introduction	p. 113
The Hydrologic Cycle of Ecosystems	p. 113
The Concept of Water Potential in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere	p. 114
Integrating Water Stress over Time: An Isotope-Based Method	p. 122
Chapter 8 Structure and Dynamics of Canopy Systems	p. 127
Introduction	p. 127
The Canopy Environment	p. 127
Structured Canopies, Succession, and Light-Use Efficiency	p. 132
Phenology: Seasonal Variation in Canopy Structure and Function	p. 138
Models of Canopy Carbon Exchange	p. 141
Chapter 9 Soil Development and the Soil Environment	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
The Major Elements	p. 148
The Soil Environment	p. 151
Soil Chemical Processes Affecting Nutrient Availability	p. 152
Chapter 10 Biological Processes in Soils	p. 169
Introduction	p. 169
Measures of Nutrient Availability	p. 169
Measures Based on Rate of Mineralization from Organic Matter	p. 170
Nutrient Uptake and the Biological Modification of Nutrient Availability	p. 171
Chapter 11 Resource Allocation and Net Primary Production	p. 183
Introduction	p. 183
Resource Limitations on Production: A Simplified View	p. 184
Resource Pools in Plants and Their Allocation	p. 184
An Ecological Enigma: Why Do Trees Stop Growing?	p. 201
Chapter 12 Chemical Properties of Litter and Soil Organic Matter: The Decomposition Continuum	p. 205
Introduction	p. 205
Organic Matter as a Resource for Microbial Growth	p. 206
Biochemical Constituents of Litter and Their Rates of Decay	p. 207
What Is Humus?	p. 215
Formation of Humus	p. 218
Decomposition and Stabilization of Humus	p. 220
Three Examples of New Approaches to "Seeing" the Structure and Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter	p. 222
Chapter 13 Decay Rates and Nutrient Dynamics of Litter and Soil Organic Matter	p. 227
Introduction	p. 227
Litter Decomposition Rates	p. 227
Decomposition and Nutrient Release from Humus	p. 243
The Important Role of Soil Organic Matter	p. 250
Chapter 14 Plant-Soil Interactions: Summary Effects on Nutrient Cycles	p. 253
Introduction	p. 253
Comparisons of Generalized Nutrient Cycles	p. 253
Changes in Solution Chemistry in Ecosystems	p. 262
Species Effects on Nutrient Distribution and Cycling	p. 264
Chapter 15 Factors Limiting Consumption: Plant-Herbivore Interactions	p. 271
Introduction	p. 271
Consumption as a Fraction of Net Primary Productivity	p. 271
Structural and Chemical Inhibition of Herbivory	p. 273
Patterns of Herbivore Inhibitor Production in Plants	p. 281
Implications	p. 284
Chapter 16 Characteristics of Ecosystems with High Herbivore Consumption Rates	p. 287
Introduction	p. 287
Ungulates and Grasses: Coevolution?	p. 287
Plants, Herbivores, Carnivores, and Cyclic Patterns of Consumption in Nongrassland Systems	p. 290
The Stabilizing Effects of Territoriality and Predation: Moose and Wolves on Isle Royale	p. 296
Effects of Vegetative Change and Climate on Irruptions of Insect Populations	p. 302
Conclusion	p. 303
Chapter 17 The Role of Fire in Carbon and Nutrient Balances	p. 307
Introduction	p. 307
Major Categories of Fire Types	p. 308
Fire Frequency and Intensity in Different Types of Ecosystems	p. 310
Effects on Soils and Plants	p. 313
Plant Adaptations to Different Fire Regimes	p. 318
Fire-Herbivory Interactions	p. 321
Fire and the Management of Ecosystems	p. 322
Conclusion	p. 327
Chapter 18 Synthesis: A Generalized Theory of Ecosystem Dynamics	p. 331
Introduction	p. 331
Successional Theories of Ecosystem Development	p. 331
Physiological Theories of Ecosystem Development	p. 338
Comparing Successional and Physiological Theories	p. 342
Part 3 Synthesis: Dynamics of Selected Ecosystems	p. 347
Chapter 19 A Fire-Dominated Ecosystem: The Taiga Forests of Interior Alaska	p. 349
Introduction	p. 349
The Taiga Forests of Interior Alaska	p. 349
Fire and Succession in Taiga Forests	p. 353
Experimental Modification of Taiga Ecosystems	p. 358
Summary of Interactions and Relation to General Theory	p. 358
Implications for Human Use of the Taiga	p. 359
Boreal Forests and Global Change	p. 360
Chapter 20 The Serengeti: An Herbivore-Dominated Ecosystem	p. 367
Introduction	p. 367
Environment of the Serengeti Region	p. 367
Resource Partitioning and Use by Herbivores	p. 372
Resource Partitioning Among Predators	p. 376
Vegetation-Herbivore-Predator Interactions	p. 378
Predation Versus Food as Limiting Factors in Herbivore Populations	p. 378
Perturbations, Succession, and the Dynamics of the Serengeti System	p. 379
Human Use and Conservation Concerns in the Serengeti	p. 383
Chapter 21 A Gap-Regeneration System: The Northern Hardwood Forests of the United States	p. 387
Introduction	p. 387
The Northern Hardwood Ecosystems of New England	p. 387
Patterns of Disturbance in Northern Hardwoods and Effects on Resource Availability	p. 390
Species Adaptations to the Disturbance Gradient: Reproductive and Life History Strategies	p. 392
Integration of Plant and Biogeochemical Responses to Disturbance	p. 397
Alternate Endpoints for Succession: Species-Site Interactions	p. 400
Human Use and History of the Northern Hardwoods Region	p. 400
Chapter 22 Ecosystem Development over Geologic Time: The Tropical Forests of Hawaii	p. 411
Introduction	p. 411
The Hawaiian Islands	p. 411
Soil Development, Soil Chemistry, and Nutrient Availability	p. 413
Feedbacks Between Plant Limitations and Nutrient Cycling	p. 418
Long-Range Nutrient Transport and the Long-Term Maintenance of Productivity	p. 418
Human Influences and Changes in Ecosystem Function	p. 421
Part 4 Application: Human Impacts on Local, Regional, and Global Ecosystems	p. 425
Chapter 23 Ecosystems Managed for Food and Fiber	p. 427
Introduction	p. 427
Malthus and the Race Between Population Growth and Increased Agricultural Production	p. 427
A Gradient in the Intensity of Management of Arable Land	p. 429
Management of Native Forests for Timber and Fiber	p. 430
Plantation Forestry	p. 434
Conserving Forest Resources	p. 436
Low-Input/Low-Yield Agriculture: Traditional Practices in the Humid Tropics	p. 436
Agroforestry: Increasing Yields by Intercropping and Managing the Fallow Forest	p. 437
Permanent High-Yield Agriculture: An Extreme Example	p. 442
Methods for Improving Sustainability	p. 445
Historical Methods of Sustainable Agriculture in the Tropics	p. 452
Characteristics of Sustainable Agroecosystems	p. 452
Relation to Conservation of Native Ecosystems	p. 454
Chapter 24 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function	p. 459
Introduction	p. 459
Defining Biodiversity	p. 460
Biodiversity at the Global Scale: Evolution and Extinction	p. 461
Patterns of Biodiversity in Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 462
Human Effects on Biodiversity and Consequences for Ecosystems	p. 465
Invasive Species and Introductions	p. 473
Environmental Change and Biodiversity	p. 475
Chapter 25 Effects of Air Pollution on Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 483
Introduction	p. 483
Air Pollution Sources	p. 483
Distribution of Air Pollutants	p. 487
Effects of Air Pollutants on Terrestrial Ecosystems	p. 492
Effects of Individual Air Pollutants	p. 496
Forest Decline: The Interactive Effects of Pollutants	p. 501
Determining "Critical Loads" of Pollution	p. 504
Environmental Success Stories: Pollution Reductions in the United States and Europe	p. 505
Chapter 26 The Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Change	p. 511
Introduction	p. 511
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Climate	p. 511
Physiological Effects of Carbon Dioxide and Climate	p. 516
Historical Changes in Land Use and Carbon Storage	p. 579
A Comparison of Methods for Estimating Carbon Balances: The United States as a Case Study	p. 521
Predicting Net Primary Production and Carbon Balances in the Future	p. 529
Epilog	p. 533
Index	p. 545

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