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Summary
Summary
Federal agencies have taken steps to include the public in a wide range of environmental decisions. Although some form of public participation is often required by law, agencies usually have broad discretion about the extent of that involvement. Approaches vary widely, from holding public information-gathering meetings to forming advisory groups to actively including citizens in making and implementing decisions.
Proponents of public participation argue that those who must live with the outcome of an environmental decision should have some influence on it. Critics maintain that public participation slows decision making and can lower its quality by including people unfamiliar with the science involved.
This book concludes that, when done correctly, public participation improves the quality of federal agencies' decisions about the environment. Well-managed public involvement also increases the legitimacy of decisions in the eyes of those affected by them, which makes it more likely that the decisions will be implemented effectively. This book recommends that agencies recognize public participation as valuable to their objectives, not just as a formality required by the law. It details principles and approaches agencies can use to successfully involve the public.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary | p. 1 |
1 Introduction | p. 7 |
Defining Public Participation | p. 11 |
Dimensions of Participation | p. 14 |
Objectives and Scope of the Study | p. 18 |
Sources of Knowledge | p. 21 |
How We Conducted the Study | p. 27 |
Guide to the Report | p. 29 |
Notes | p. 30 |
2 The Promise and Perils of Participation | p. 33 |
Historical Development: Laws and Agency Practices | p. 36 |
Purposes of Public Participation | p. 43 |
Justifications for and Problems with Public Participation | p. 46 |
Pitfalls | p. 51 |
Criteria for Evaluation | p. 66 |
Conclusion | p. 73 |
Notes | p. 74 |
3 The Effects of Public Participation | p. 75 |
Does Public Participation Improve Results? | p. 76 |
Associations Among Results: Can You Have It All? | p. 86 |
Conclusion | p. 91 |
Notes | p. 92 |
4 Public Participation Practice: Management Practices | p. 95 |
Clarity of Purpose | p. 96 |
Agency Commitment | p. 99 |
Adequate Capacity and Resources | p. 101 |
Timeliness in Relation to Decisions | p. 103 |
A Focus on Implementation | p. 105 |
Commitment to Learning | p. 106 |
Conclusion | p. 109 |
5 Practice: Organizing Participation | p. 111 |
Public Participation Formats and Practices | p. 111 |
Dimensions of Participatory Process | p. 115 |
Breadth | p. 118 |
Openness of Design | p. 122 |
Intensity | p. 126 |
Influence | p. 132 |
Conclusion | p. 135 |
Note | p. 135 |
6 Practice: Integrating Science | p. 137 |
Integration | p. 138 |
Challenges of Integration | p. 140 |
Meeting the Challenges | p. 144 |
Conclusion | p. 152 |
Summary: The Practice of Participation | p. 154 |
7 Context: The Issue | p. 157 |
Purpose of the Process: Assessment or Decision Making | p. 158 |
Nature of the Environmental Issue | p. 161 |
The Science | p. 167 |
Conclusions | p. 180 |
Notes | p. 182 |
8 Context: The People | p. 187 |
Convening and Implementing Agencies | p. 187 |
Who Participates | p. 192 |
Adequacy of Representation | p. 193 |
Differing Perspectives | p. 202 |
Polarization | p. 205 |
Power Disparities | p. 207 |
Role of Representatives | p. 209 |
Trust | p. 210 |
Conclusions | p. 214 |
Notes | p. 216 |
9 Overall Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 223 |
The Value of Public Participation | p. 226 |
Management | p. 227 |
Organizing the Process | p. 230 |
Integrating Science | p. 233 |
Implementation | p. 236 |
Needed Research | p. 238 |
Notes | p. 243 |
References | p. 245 |
Appendix Biographical Sketches of Panel Members and Staff | p. 299 |