Health and environmental safety of nanomaterials : polymer nancomposites and other materials containing nanoparticles

Health and Environmental Safety of Nanomaterials addresses concerns about the impact of nanomaterials on the environment and human health, and examines the safety of specific nanomaterials. Understanding the unique chemical and physical properties of nanostructures has led to many developments in the applications of nanocomposite materials. While these materials have applications in a huge range of areas, their potential for toxicity must be thoroughly understood.

Part one introduces the properties of nanomaterials, nanofillers, and nanocomposites, and questions whether they are more toxic than their bulk counterparts. Part two looks at the release and exposure of nanomaterials. The text covers sampling techniques and data analysis methods used to assess nanoparticle exposure, as well as protocols for testing the safety of polymer nanocomposites. It explains characterization techniques of airborne nanoparticles and life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials. Part three focuses on the safety of certain nanomaterials, including nanolayered silicates, carbon nanotubes, and metal oxides. In particular, it explores the potential ecotoxicological hazards associated with the different structures of carbon nanotubes and the safe recycling of inorganic and carbon nanoparticles. The final two chapters address the risks of nanomaterials in fire conditions: their thermal degradation, flammability, and toxicity in different fire scenarios.

This is a scientific guide with technical background for professionals using nanomaterials in industry, scientists, academicians, research scholars, and polymer engineers. It also offers a deep understanding of the subject for undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Author Notes

Dr James Njuguna is a Reader in Composite Materials and Structures at Robert Gordon University, UK.
Krzysztof Pielichowski teaches in the Department of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Cracow University of Technology, Poland.
Dr Huijun Zhu is a Senior Toxicologist at Cranfield University, UK.

J. Njuguna, Robert Gordon University, UK and F. Ansari, Newcastle University, UK and S. Sachse and H. Zhu and V.M. Rodriguez, Cranfield University, UKA. Pietroiusti and A. Magrini and L. Campagnolo, University of Rome Tor Vergata, ItalyI.J. Yu, Hoseo University, Korea and G. Ichihara, Nagoya University, Japan and K. Ahn, Hanyang University, KoreaM. Blázquez Sánchez, Inkoa Sistemas, SpainJ. Njuguna, Robert Gordon University, UK and S. Sachse, Cranfield University, UKS. Gavankar and S. Suh and A.A. Keller, University of California, Santa Barbara, USAH. Zhu, Cranfield University, UK and J. Njuguna, Robert Gordon University, UK, formerly Cranfield University, UKM. Ghiazza, University of Torino, Italy and G. Vietti, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium and I. Fenoglio, University of Torino, ItalyE.J. Petersen, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USAJ.E. Canas-Carrell and S. Li and A.M. Parra and B. Shrestha, Texas Tech University, USAL. Reunders, University of Amsterdam, NetherlandsK. Pielichowski and S. Michalowski, Cracow University of Technology, PolandJ.-M. Lopez-Cuesta and C. Longuet, Ecole des Mines d'Alès, C2MA, France and C. Chivas-Joly, LNE, France

Contributor contact details	p. xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering	p. xv
Preface	p. xix
Part I General introduction	p. 1
1 Nanomaterials, nanofillers, and nanocomposites: types and properties	p. 3
1.1 Introduction	p. 3
1.2 Key terms and definitions	p. 6
1.3 Common physical and chemical properties	p. 7
1.4 Types of nanofi Her	p. 11
1.5 Nanocomposites: selected examples	p. 18
1.6 Conclusion	p. 23
1.7 Acknowledgement	p. 23
1.8 References	p. 23
2 Mechanisms of nanomaterial toxicity	p. 28
2.1 Introduction	p. 28
2.2 Size- and non-size-related toxicity mechanisms of nanomaterials	p. 28
2.3 Mechanisms of nanomaterial-induced cellular damage mediated by oxidative stress	p. 31
2.4 Mechanisms of nanomaterial-induced cellular damage independent of oxidative stress	p. 34
2.5 Nanomaterial shape and toxicity: the fibre paradigm	p. 36
2.6 The use of lipidomics, proteomics, and transcriptomics to understand nanomaterial toxicity	p. 37
2.7 Conclusion and future trends	p. 39
2.8 References	p. 40
Part II Assessment of nanomaterial release and exposure	p. 45
3 Nanoparticle exposure assessment: methods, sampling techniques, and data analysis	p. 47
3.1 Introduction	p. 47
3.2 Physicochemical properties of nanomaterials relevant to exposure assessment	p. 49
3.3 International standards and guidance relating to nanoparticle exposure assessment	p. 50
3.4 Instrumentation for exposure assessment	p. 51
3.5 Sample collection strategies for exposure assessment	p. 54
3.6 Initial evaluation: identification of potential emission sources	p. 55
3.7 Main evaluation: key steps	p. 56
3.8 Data interpretation	p. 58
3.9 Conclusion and future trends	p. 59
3.10 Acknowledgement	p. 60
3.11 References	p. 60
4 Sampling protocols for testing the safety of polymer nanocomposites	p. 63
4.1 Introduction	p. 63
4.2 Approaches for release simulation: case studies of drilling	p. 64
4.3 Simulating the release of particulate materials	p. 66
4.4 Collection of samples	p. 67
4.5 Characterization of samples	p. 68
4.6 Sample storage and labelling	p. 72
4.7 Preventing the contamination of stored samples	p. 73
4.8 Sample pre-treatment before testing: use of dispersing agents, sonication, stirring and mixing	p. 74
4.9 Protocol validation and standardization	p. 74
4.10 Conclusion and future trends	p. 75
4.11 Sources of further information and advice	p. 76
4.12 References	p. 76
5 Measurement and sampling techniques for characterization of airborne nanoparticles released from nano-enhanced products	p. 78
5.1 Introduction	p. 78
5.2 Identification of release scenarios of nano-sized particles from nanocomposites	p. 82
5.3 Measurement of airborne nano-sized particles	p. 86
5.4 Collection of airborne particles	p. 91
5.5 Deficiencies of devices for measuring airborne nano-sized particles	p. 94
5.6 Case study: the effect of nanoclay on dust generation during drilling of PA6 nanocomposites	p. 95
5.7 Conclusion	p. 105
5.8 Acknowledgement	p. 106
5.9 References	p. 107
6 Life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials	p. 112
6.1 Introduction	p. 112
6.2 Life cycle assessment methodology	p. 113
6.3 Life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials: case studies	p. 115
6.4 New developments in life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials	p. 123
6.5 Conclusion	p. 125
6.6 References	p. 125
Part III Safety of particular types of nanomaterial	p. 131
7 Nanolayered silicates/clay minerals: uses and effects on health	p. 133
7.1 Introduction	p. 133
7.2 Characteristics of clay minerals	p. 135
7.3 Effect of clay minerals on the environment	p. 137
7.4 Toxicity of nanoclays in humans	p. 140
7.5 Life cycle assessment of nanoclay-reinforced materials	p. 141
7.6 Conclusion and future trends	p. 142
7.7 References	p. 142
8 Carbon nanotubes: properties, applications, and toxicity	p. 147
8.1 Introduction	p. 147
8.2 Physico-chemical properties of carbon nanotubes and their applications	p. 148
8.3 Carbon nanotubes in nanomedicine	p. 152
8.4 Carbon nanotube toxicity	p. 157
8.5 Conclusion and future trends	p. 165
8.6 Acknowledgments	p. 166
8.7 References	p. 166
9 Ecotoxicological effects of carbon nanotubes: test methods and current research	p. 175
9.1 Introduction	p. 175
9.2 Quantification of carbon nanotubes in environmentally relevant media	p. 176
9.3 Methodological issues	p. 180
9.4 Current research on ecotoxicological risks of nanoparticles	p. 184
9.5 Future trends	p. 190
9.6 Conclusion	p. 193
9.7 Disclaimer	p. 194
9.8 References	p. 194
10 Metal oxide nanomaterials: health and environmental effects	p. 200
10.1 Introduction	p. 200
10.2 Nano-zinc oxide	p. 200
10.3 Nano-titani urn dioxide	p. 205
10.4 Other metal oxides	p. 208
10.5 Conclusion and future trends: metal oxide nanomaterial regulation and risk assessment	p. 211
10.6 Sources of further information and advice	p. 211
10.7 References	p. 212
11 Safe recycling of materials containing persistent inorganic and carbon nanoparticles	p. 222
11.1 Introduction	p. 222
11.2 Recycling of engineered nanomaterials applied in suspensions	p. 225
11.3 Recycling of nanocomposites	p. 230
11.4 The range of recycling options	p. 231
11.5 Nanomaterials present in wastes	p. 237
11.6 Release of nanoparticles linked to recycling facilities	p. 238
11.7 Conclusion	p. 239
11.8 References	p. 239
12 Nanostructured flame retardants: performance, toxicity, and environmental impact	p. 251
12.1 Introduction	p. 251
12.2 Fabrication of polymer nanocomposites	p. 252
12.3 Conventional and nanostructured flame retardants	p. 254
12.4 Flame retardant behaviour of polymer nanocomposites	p. 256
12.5 Synergies from combining nanostructured flame retardants	p. 257
12.6 Health and environmental risks of conventional and nanostructured flame retardants	p. 267
12.7 Conclusion and future trends	p. 272
12.8 References	p. 273
13 Thermal degradation, flammability, and potential toxicity of polymer nanocomposites	p. 278
13.1 Introduction	p. 278
13.2 Thermal degradation processes of polymers and nanocomposites	p. 280
13.3 Thermal stability of nanoparticles	p. 281
13.4 Instrumentation and techniques to investigate degradation products of nanocomposites	p. 285
13.5 Fire toxicity of degradation products of nanocomposites and its assessment	p. 292
13.6 Intrinsic toxicity of nanoparticles	p. 294
13.7 Ultrafine particle production during combustion of nanocomposites	p. 299
13.8 Conclusion and future trends	p. 302
13.9 References	p. 303
Index	p. 311

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