Manual on the causes and control of activated sludge bulking, foaming and other solids separation problems

The most common activated sludge operating problems causing poor plant performance are related to solids separation. Especially common are bulking and foaming. Without a proper scientific foundation to support the efforts of wastewater treatment plant management, many attempts to thwart bulking and foaming have failed.

Manual on Solving Activated Sludge Bulking, Foaming, and Other Solids Separation Problems provides the critical scientific and practical underpinnings needed to understand and combat these problems. The third edition of this flagship text is a comprehensive, concise guide to the microbiological and technical aspects of controlling all types of solid separation problems.

The scientific theory is applied to real-world scenarios, greatly increasing the number of real-world examples of successful control methods. New information is also included on filamentous organism growth and its application in the control of sludge bulking and foaming. Now plant operators, regulators and wastewater engineers have a complete guide for battling these formidable design and operating problems.

Author Notes

David Jenkins is also the author of Training Speed and Endurance. He is also a sports scientists and has a Ph.D. in exercise physiology.

(Bowker Author Biography)

Chapter 1 Solids Separation Problems	p. 1
I. Introduction	p. 1
II. Solids Separation Problems	p. 1
III. Activated Sludge Floc	p. 1
IV. Solids Separation Problems in Terms of Floc Structure	p. 3
A. Dispersed Growth	p. 3
B. Viscous Bulking	p. 3
C. Pin Floc	p. 4
D. Filamentous Bulking	p. 4
E. Foam/Scum	p. 5
V. Differentiation of Microbial and Process-Related Solids Separation Problems	p. 7
Chapter 2 Methods	p. 9
I. Introduction	p. 9
II. Microscopic Examination Methods	p. 9
A. Filament Counting Methods	p. 9
1. Total Extended Filament Length	p. 9
2. Filament Count	p. 9
3. Nocardioform Filament Organism Counting	p. 9
B. Floc and Filamentous Microorganism Characterization	p. 9
1. Introduction	p. 9
2. Sampling Points	p. 10
3. Sampling Frequency	p. 11
4. Sample Transport and Storage	p. 11
5. Microscope	p. 12
6. Cameras	p. 13
7. Staining Procedures	p. 13
8. Sample Preparation	p. 13
9. Floc Characteristics and Overall Filament Abundance	p. 14
a. Floc Size	p. 15
b. Floc Characteristics	p. 15
c. Protozoa and Other Macroorganisms	p. 15
d. Nonbiological Organic and Inorganic Particles	p. 15
e. Bacterial Colonies	p. 15
f. Cells Dispersed in Bulk Solution	p. 16
g. Effects of Filamentous Organisms on Floc Structure	p. 17
h. Filamentous Organism Abundance	p. 17
10. Filamentous Organism Characteristics	p. 17
a. Branching	p. 17
b. Motility	p. 18
c. Filament Shape	p. 18
d. Location	p. 18
e. Attached Bacteria	p. 18
f. Sheath	p. 18
g. Cross-Walls (Cell Septa)	p. 19
h. Filament Width	p. 19
i. Filament Length	p. 19
j. Cell Shape	p. 19
k. Cell Size	p. 19
l. Sulfur Deposits	p. 21
m. Other Granules	p. 21
n. Staining Reactions	p. 21
o. Additional Observations	p. 22
11. Filamentous Organism Identification	p. 23
a. Using the Dichotomous Key	p. 23
b. Building Your Skills	p. 23
12. Filamentous Organism Descriptions	p. 23
a. Sphaerotilus natans (Figures 2.9c, 2.13b, 2.14f, and 2.21a)	p. 24
b. Type 1701 (Figure 2.21b)	p. 24
c. Haliscomenobacter hydrossis (Figure 2.21c)	p. 27
d. Type 021N (Figures 2.11b, 2.13d, 2.14d, 2.14e, 2.15c, 2.18a, 2.19b, and 2.22a)	p. 27
e. Thiothrix I (Figures 2.14b, 2.15a, 2.19c, and 2.23a)	p. 27
f. Thiothrix II (Figures 2.19d, 2.23c, and 2.23d)	p. 28
g. Type 0914 (Figures 2.15d, 2.24a, and 2.24b)	p. 29
h. Beggiatoa sp. (Figures 2.15b, 2.22c, and 2.22d)	p. 30
i. Nostocoida limicola I (Figure 2.25a)	p. 30
j. Nostocoida limicola II (Figures 2.10e, 2.11c, 2.17b, 2.18e, and 2.25b)	p. 32
k. Nostocoida limicola III (Figure 2.25c)	p. 33
l. Type 0411 (Figure 2.26a)	p. 34
m. Type 0961 (Figure 2.26b)	p. 34
n. Type 0092 (Figures 2.18d and 2.26c)	p. 35
o. Type 0581 (Figure 2.26d)	p. 35
p. Type 0041 (Figures 2.10a, 2.12a, 2.13c, 2.14a, 2.17c, 2.18f, and 2.27a)	p. 35
q. Type 0675 (Figure 2.27b)	p. 37
r. Type 1851 (Figures 2.17d and 2.27c)	p. 37
s. Type 0803 (Figure 2.27d)	p. 37
t. Microthrix parvicella (Figures 2.17e, 2.18c, 2.28a, 5.1e, and 5.1f)	p. 37
u. Nocardioforms (Figures 2.9b, 2.10f, 2.14g, 2.17f, 2.18b, 2.28b, 5.1a, 5.1b, 5.1c and 5.1d)	p. 37
v. Type 1863 (Figures 2.10c, 2.14c, and 2.28c)	p. 37
w. Type 0211 (Figure 2.28d)	p. 41
x. Flexibacter sp. (Figure 2.29a)	p. 43
y. Bacillus sp. (Figure 2.29b)	p. 43
z. Cyanophyceae (Figure 2.29c)	p. 43
aa. Fungi (Figures 2.9a and 2.29d)	p. 43
C. Progress in Identifying Filamentous Organisms	p. 44
D. Protozoa And Metazoa	p. 45
1. General	p. 45
2. Microscopic Evaluation	p. 46
3. Taxonomic Classification	p. 47
a. Flagellates	p. 47
b. Amoebae	p. 47
c. Free-Swimming Ciliates	p. 47
d. Attached Ciliates	p. 48
e. Rotifers	p. 48
f. Higher Invertebrates	p. 48
4. Use of Protozoa and Metazoa as Indicator Organisms	p. 48
E. Physical and Chemical Methods	p. 49
1. Settling Tests	p. 50
2. Foaming Tests	p. 50
3. Methods for Differentiating Microbiological and Process-Related Solids Separation Problems	p. 51
a. Dispersed SS (DSS)	p. 51
b. Flocculated SS (FSS)	p. 51
c. Secondary Effluent SS (ESS)	p. 52
Chapter 3 Applications and Results of Microscopic Examination of Activated Sludge	p. 57
I. Introduction	p. 57
II. Filament Counting	p. 57
III. Filamentous Organism Identification in Activated Sludge	p. 58
A. Results of Filamentous Organism Surveys	p. 58
B. Diagnosis of Causes of Solids Separation Problems through Microscopic Examination	p. 59
1. General	p. 59
2. Nonmicrobial Particles	p. 60
3. Other Microbiological Features	p. 61
a. General	p. 61
b. Limited Diversity	p. 61
c. Dispersed Growth	p. 62
d. Neisser-Positive Cell Clumps	p. 65
e. Yeast	p. 66
f. Zoogloeas	p. 66
g. Selector Flocs	p. 66
h. Nitrifying Bacteria	p. 67
i. Denitrifying Bacteria	p. 67
j. Spirochaetes, Spirillum, and Flexibacter	p. 67
k. Exocellular Material	p. 67
l. Algae	p. 68
4. Filamentous Organisms	p. 69
a. Relationship to Causes of Bulking	p. 69
b. Nutrient Balance	p. 69
c. Readily Metabolizable Soluble Organics	p. 69
d. Sulfide	p. 70
e. Lipids	p. 70
f. Other Particulate Substrates	p. 70
g. Case Study	p. 70
h. Net Growth Rate (MCRT, F/M)	p. 71
i. Aeration Basin Configuration and Redox Conditions	p. 71
j. Wastewater Feeding Regime	p. 72
k. Foam Trapping Features	p. 72
l. Upstream Biological Treatment Units, Sewer Surfaces, and In-Plant Surfaces	p. 73
m. DO Concentration	p. 73
n. pH	p. 73
o. Temperature	p. 73
p. Summary	p. 74
Chapter 4 Control of Activated Sludge Bulking and Other Settling Problems	p. 77
I. Introduction	p. 77
II. General Approach	p. 77
III. Rapid, Nonspecific Bulking Control Methods	p. 78
A. Manipulation of RAS Flow Rates and Aeration Basin Feed Points	p. 78
1. Secondary Clarifier Operating Principles	p. 78
2. Activated Sludge Process Schematic and Definitions	p. 78
3. Secondary Clarifier Process Operating Relationships	p. 78
a. Degree of Thickening Achieved by Secondary Clarifier	p. 79
b. Required RAS Flow Rate	p. 79
c. Secondary Clarifier Capacity	p. 79
4. Sludge Thickening Theory	p. 79
5. Secondary Clarifier Analysis and Operation	p. 83
6. System Analysis and Operation	p. 85
B. Addition of Chemicals and Inert Solids to Enhance Activated Sludge Settling Rates	p. 87
C. Addition of Disinfectants to Selectively Kill Filamentous Organisms	p. 89
1. General	p. 89
2. Use of Chlorination for Bulking Control	p. 90
a. Chlorination Criteria	p. 90
b. General Guidelines	p. 92
c. Chlorination System Design	p. 93
d. Monitoring Effects of Chlorine Addition	p. 93
3. Case Histories of Bulking Control Using Chlorination	p. 94
a. General	p. 94
b. City of Albany, GA	p. 94
c. City of San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant, CA	p. 96
d. Stroh Brewing Co., Longview, TX	p. 97
e. Plastics Manufacturing Wastewater Activated Sludge System, WV	p. 98
4. Use of Hydrogen Peroxide for Bulking Control	p. 101
a. General	p. 101
b. City of Petaluma, CA	p. 102
5. Use of Ozone for Bulking Control	p. 102
6. Filamenticides	p. 102
IV. Specific Methods of Bulking Control	p. 102
A. Nutrient Deficiency	p. 103
1. General	p. 103
2. Macronutrient Deficiency	p. 103
a. General	p. 103
b. Factors Affecting Macronutrient Requirements	p. 103
c. Availability of Macronutrients	p. 103
d. Satisfying Macronutrient Demands	p. 104
e. Required Residual Macronutrient Concentrations	p. 106
3. Micronutrients	p. 107
B. Low Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Concentrations	p. 108
1. General	p. 108
2. Case Histories	p. 109
a. Orange County Sanitation District Plant, Fountain Valley, CA	p. 109
b. Pulp and Paper Wastewater Activated Sludge Plant	p. 109
c. City of Woonsocket, RI	p. 109
C. Effect of Aeration Basin Configuration, Wastewater Feeding Method, and Redox Conditions on Activated Sludge Settling Characteristics	p. 110
1. Effect of Aeration Basin Configuration	p. 110
2. Selectors	p. 111
3. Selector Effect	p. 112
a. General Observations	p. 112
b. Selector Mechanisms	p. 112
c. Effects of Selectors	p. 117
4. Selector Design (Sizing)	p. 118
a. General	p. 118
b. Initial Contact Zones	p. 118
c. Aerobic Selectors	p. 118
d. Anoxic Selectors	p. 119
e. Anaerobic Selectors	p. 120
f. Main Aeration Basin	p. 120
5. Selector Case Histories	p. 120
a. Leopoldsdorf Sugar Mill, Austria	p. 120
b. Hamilton, OH	p. 120
c. Davenport, IA	p. 122
d. Tri-City, Clackamas County, OR	p. 123
e. Fayetteville, AR	p. 124
f. Hyperion Treatment Plant, Los Angeles, CA	p. 125
g. 23rd Avenue Plant, Phoenix, AZ	p. 125
6. Situations Where Selectors Are Not Effective	p. 126
V. High Effluent SS Due to Clarification Problems	p. 127
A. General	p. 127
B. Problem Definition	p. 128
1. Method of Investigation	p. 128
2. Results	p. 128
3. Problem Resolution	p. 128
a. Inadequate Flocculation, Floc Break-Up (High ESS, High DSS[subscript i], Low FSS)	p. 128
b. Clarifier Hydraulic Problems (High ESS, Low DSS, Low FSS)	p. 129
c. Bioflocculation Problems (High DSS[subscript i], High FSS, High ESS)	p. 129
Chapter 5 Activated Sludge Foaming and Control	p. 131
I. Activated Sludge Foaming	p. 131
A. Types of Activated Sludge Foam	p. 131
II. Nocardioform Foaming	p. 132
A. Extent and Significance of Problems	p. 132
1. Foaming Organism Surveys	p. 132
2. Foaming Problems	p. 132
a. Activated Sludge	p. 132
b. Anaerobic Digesters	p. 133
c. Pathogenic Nocardioforms	p. 135
B. Proposed Mechanisms of Foaming	p. 135
1. Introduction	p. 135
2. Physical/Chemical Factors	p. 135
a. Nature of Foam	p. 135
b. Solids-Containing Foams	p. 136
c. Roles of Surfactants	p. 136
d. Anaerobic Digester Foaming	p. 137
e. Foam Trapping and Recycling	p. 137
f. Foaming Tests	p. 139
3. Microbiological Factors	p. 140
a. Factors Affecting Growth	p. 140
b. MCRT and Temperature	p. 141
c. pH	p. 143
III. Nocardioform Control	p. 144
A. Nocardioform Growth in Activated Sludge	p. 144
1. Introduction	p. 144
2. Aerobic Selectors	p. 144
3. Anoxic Selectors	p. 146
4. Anaerobic Selectors	p. 147
5. Classifying Selectors and Selective Foam Wasting	p. 151
6. Chlorination	p. 154
7. Cationic Polymer Addition	p. 154
8. Automatic MCRT Control	p. 156
IV. Microthrix parvicella	p. 156
A. Factors Affecting M. parvicella Growth	p. 156
1. General	p. 156
2. Substrates	p. 156
3. Operating Conditions	p. 156
4. Control	p. 158
5. Case Histories	p. 158
a. Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority (UOSA), VA	p. 158
b. Northside Wastewater Treatment Plant, Tulsa, OK	p. 159
V. Anaerobic Digester Foaming	p. 160
Bibliography and References	p. 163
Index	p. 179

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Table of Contents