Cell-Cell Channels

he biological sciences are dominated by the idea that cells are the functionally autonomous, physically separated, discrete units of life. TThis concept was propounded in the 19th century by discoveries of the cellular structuring of both plants and animals. Moreover, the ap parent autonomy of unicellular eukaryotes, as well as the cellular basis of the mammalian brain (an organ whose anatomy for a long while defied attempts to validate the idea of the cellular nature of its neurons), seemed to provide the final conclusive evidence for the completeness of *cell theory', a theory which has persisted in an almost dogmatic form up to the present day. However, it is very obvious that there are numerous observations which indicate that it is not the cells which serve as the basic units of biological life but that this property falls to some other, subcellular assemblage. To deal with this intricate problem concerning the fundamental unit of living matter, we proposed the so-called Cell Body concept which, in fact, devel ops an exceedingly original idea proposed by Julius Sachs at the end of the 19th century. In the case of eukaryotic cells, DNA-enriched nuclei are intimately associated with a microtubular cytoskeleton. In this configuration--as a Cell Body--these two items comprise the fundamental functional and struc tural unit of eukaryotic living matter. The Cell Body seems to be inherent to all cells in all organisms.

Frantisek Baluska and Dieter Volkmann and Peter W. BarlowElisabeth GrohmannEric S. ColeHarold J. Hoops and Ichiro Nishii and David L. KirkNick D. Read and M. Gabriela RocaYoselin Benitez Alfonso and Laurence Cantrill and David JacksonAart J.E. van BelJozef Samaj and Nigel Chaffey and Uday Tirlapur and Jan Jasik and Andrej Hlavacka and Zhan Feng Cui and Dieter Volkmann and Diedrik Menzel and Frantisek BaluskaJohn R. BarnettManfred HeinleinJan W.M. van Lent and Corinne Schmitt-KeichingerAlexis MaizelFabio MammanoHans-Hermann Gerdes and Amin RustomSami VentelaJean-Rene HuynhSvetlana Ivanovna Galkina and Anatoly Georgievich Bogdanov and Georgy Natanovich Davidovich and Galina Fedorovna Sud'inaLuca Manzi and Gianfranco BazzoniRadu V. StanMary Poupot and Julie Gertner and Jean-Jacques FournieAlain Joliot and Alain ProchiantzEduardo Garcia and Vincent PiguetWilliam A. Mohler

Preface	p. xvii
1 Cell-Cell Channels and Their Implications for Cell Theory	p. 1
The Permanent Crisis Surrounding Cell Theory	p. 2
More Problems with Cell Theory: What Is a Cell?	p. 3
Julius Sachs: Energide as the Basic Unit of Eukaryotic Life Endowed with Vital Energy	p. 4
Energide versus Cell Periphery	p. 5
Adaptability versus Complexity in Cellular Evolution	p. 6
Duality of Eukaryotic Cells	p. 7
Cell-Cell Channels: Supracellularity Is Found at All Levels of Cellular Organization	p. 7
Cell-Cell Channels in Filamentous Fungi, Plants and Animals	p. 9
Cell-Cell Channels and the Energide: Implications for Cell Theory	p. 10
Section I Prokaryotic Cells
2 Mating Cell-Cell Channels in Conjugating Bacteria	p. 21
Conjugative DNA Transfer in Gram-Negative Bacteria	p. 22
Pheromone-Responsive Conjugative Plasmids in E. faecalis	p. 27
Nonpheromone-Responsive Plasmids in G+ Bacteria	p. 28
Section II Ciliate Cells
3 The Tetrahymena Conjugation Junction	p. 39
Developmental Biology	p. 41
Biochemical Studies	p. 55
Genetic Studies	p. 57
Section III Algal Cells
4 Cytoplasmic Bridges in Volvox and Its Relatives	p. 65
A Brief Overview of Volvox carteri Development	p. 66
The Formation of a Cytoplasmic-Bridge System in Volvox carteri Embryos	p. 68
Structural Features of the V. carteri Cytoplasmic-Bridge System	p. 70
The Function of the Cytoplasmic-Bridge System in Cleaving Embryos	p. 71
The Function of the Cytoplasmic-Bridge System in Inverting Embryos	p. 71
An Inversion Motor in the Cytoplasmic Bridges	p. 72
The Evolutionary Origins of Cytoplasmic Bridges that Persist in the Adult	p. 74
Structure and Formation of Persistent Cytoplasmic Bridges in Volvox, Section Euvolvox	p. 76
What Is the Relationship between Embryonic and Adult Cytoplasmic Bridges?	p. 81
The Functions of Persistent Cytoplasmic Bridges	p. 81
Section IV Fungal Cells
5 Vegetative Hyphal Fusion in Filamentous Fungi	p. 87
Fusion between Spores and Spore Germlings	p. 88
Fusion between Hyphae in the Mature Colony	p. 91
CAT Fusion as a Model for Studying Vegetative Hyphal Fusion	p. 91
Functions of Vegetative Hyphal Fusion	p. 94
Features of Hyphal Fusion in Common with Yeast Cell Mating and Appressorium Formation	p. 94
Vegetative Hyphal Fusion and Heterokaryon Incompatibility	p. 95
Section V Plant Cells
6 Plasmodesmata: Cell-Cell Channels in Plants	p. 101
Structure of Plasmodesmata	p. 102
Mechanisms of Protein and RNA Transport through PDs	p. 104
Plasmodesmata as a Route for Trafficking of Developmental Signals	p. 106
Developmental and Environmental Regulation of PD SEL	p. 106
7 Sieve-Pore Plugging Mechanisms	p. 113
Cell Biology of the Sieve Element/Companion Cell Complex	p. 113
Mass Flow and Phloem-Specific Proteins	p. 114
Sieve-Plate Plugging by Phloem-Specific Proteins	p. 114
Mechanisms of Sieve-Plate Sealing	p. 115
Dispersion and Contraction of Forisomes	p. 115
Physiological Triggers of the Sieve-Plate Plugging	p. 115
8 Actin and Myosin VIII in Plant Cell-Cell Channels	p. 119
How Are Proteins and Other Molecules Targeted to PD?	p. 120
How Are Molecules Transported through PD?	p. 120
Actin and Myosin VIII in PD of Algae and Herbaceous Plants	p. 121
Root Cap Statocytes Are Symplasmically Isolated and Depleted in Myosin VIII	p. 122
PD and Nuclear Pores: Common Structural and Functional Aspects	p. 124
PD and Cell Plates: Endocytic Connections?	p. 125
Cytoskeleton, Endocytosis and PD	p. 127
Actin and Myosin VIII in PD of Woody Tissues in Trees	p. 128
Conclusions and Outlook: From the Actomyosin-Based PD in Plants to the Actomyosin-Based Cell-Cell Channels in Animals	p. 130
9 Cell-Cell Communication in Wood	p. 135
Xylem Parenchyma	p. 137
Origin and Function of Rays	p. 141
Distribution of Plasmodesmata in Nonparenchymatous Wood Cells	p. 142
Plasmodesmata in Differentiating Xylem	p. 144
Formation of Plasmodesmata in Cambium and Developing Wood Cells	p. 145
10 TMV Movement Protein Targets Cell-Cell Channels in Plants and Prokaryotes: Possible Roles of Tubulin- and FtsZ-Based Cytoskeletons	p. 148
Plasmodesmata and Intercellular Communication in Plants	p. 148
The Movement Protein of TMV Interacts with the Plant Cytoskeleton and Plasmodesmata to Facilitate Intercellular Spread of the Virus	p. 149
The Movement Protein of TMV Targets and Modifies Cell-Cell Junctions in Anabaena	p. 152
11 Viral Movement Proteins Induce Tubule Formation in Plant and Insect Cells	p. 160
Viruses, Transport Tubules and Plasmodesmata	p. 161
Requirements for the Assembly of the Transport Tubules	p. 165
The MPs That Form Tubules	p. 165
Interactions between Tubules and Capsids for Cell-to-Cell Movement	p. 166
Host Factors Involved in Targeting and Assembly of the Tubules	p. 167
Interaction between MP and Plasma Membrane: Anchoring	p. 169
A Model for Tubule-Mediated Cell-to-Cell Movement	p. 169
12 Cell-Cell Movements of Transcription Factors in Plants	p. 176
Noncell Autonomous Action of Transcription Factors by Direct Protein Transfer in Plants	p. 176
Common Mechanistic Trends in Plant Transcription Factors Movement?	p. 179
Biological Significance of Transcription Factor Movement in Plants?	p. 180
Section VI Animal Cells
13 Gap Junctions: Cell-Cell Channels in Animals	p. 185
Connexins	p. 185
Connexin-Related Pathologies	p. 191
Pannexins	p. 195
14 Tunneling Nanotubes: Membranous Channels between Animal Cells	p. 200
Structure	p. 201
Formation	p. 203
Function(s)	p. 204
Implications and Outlook	p. 206
15 Cytoplasmic Bridges as Cell-Cell Channels of Germ Cells	p. 208
Cytoplasmic Bridges during Gametogenesis	p. 208
The Cytoplasmic Bridges in Action	p. 209
Mechanisms Needed for Cytoplasmic Material Transportation between the Germ Cells	p. 212
16 Fusome as a Cell-Cell Communication Channel of Drosophila Ovarian Cyst	p. 217
Formation of the Fusome	p. 218
Fusome Functions in the Formation and Differentiation of the Germline Cyst	p. 227
17 Cytonemes as Cell-Cell Channels in Human Blood Cells	p. 236
Cytonemes of Embryonic Cells	p. 237
Cytonemes of Human Blood Cells	p. 237
Formation and Properties of Cytonemes Connecting Blood Cells	p. 240
Origin and Degradation of Cytonemes	p. 242
18 Paracellular Pores in Endothelial Barriers	p. 245
Endothelial Permeability	p. 245
Tight Junctions and Paracellular Permeability	p. 245
The Role of Claudins in Paracellular Permeability	p. 247
Open Issues	p. 248
19 Channels across Endothelial Cells	p. 251
Vascular Permeability-Pathways of Transendothelial Exchange	p. 252
Pores across Endothelium	p. 257
20 Molecular Transfers through Transient Lymphoid Cell-Cell Channels	p. 267
Introduction: Transient Cell-Cell Contacts Take Place at the Immunological Synapse between Lymphoid Cells	p. 267
Two Different Ways for Cell-Cell Transfer between Lymphoid Cells	p. 269
A Mechanistic Model of Trogocytosis	p. 272
Methods and Techniques for the Monitoring of in Vitro Trogocytosis	p. 273
Intercellular Transfer in Activated Lymphoid Cells	p. 275
Spontaneous Homotypic Intercellular Transfer in Lymphoid Cancer Cells	p. 276
Physiological Consequences of Intercellular Transfer by T Lymphocytes	p. 276
Physiological Consequences of Intercellular Transfer by NK Cells: Protective Role of Acquired HLA Class I Alleles, Cytokine Receptor and Deleterious Role of Acquired Viral Receptors	p. 277
Technological Consequences of Trogocytosis	p. 277
Trogotypes for Immuno-Monitoring the Lymphoid Cell Reactivity to Cancer	p. 278
Transynaptic Acquisition of Functional Markers in Oncology	p. 279
21 Cell-Cell Transport of Homeoproteins: With or Without Channels?	p. 283
Intercellular Transfer of Homeoproteins in Animals	p. 283
Phylogenesis of Homeoprotein Intetcellular Transfer	p. 284
Function of Intercellular Transfer	p. 285
22 Virological Synapse for Cell-Cell Spread of Viruses	p. 288
Neural, Immunological and Virological Synapse	p. 288
Virological Synapse during Retroviral Infection	p. 289
Virological Synapses during HIV Infection	p. 289
Virological Synapse for HTLV-1 Replication	p. 291
Emerging Role for a Plant Virological Synapse	p. 292
23 Cell-Cell Fusion: Transient Channels Leading to Plasma Membrane Merger	p. 298
Fertilization (Mouse)	p. 300
Fertilization (Nematode)	p. 300
Myoblasts (Mouse)	p. 300
Myoblasts (Fruit Fly)	p. 302
Placental Syncytiotrophoblast Cells (Human and Mouse)	p. 303
Lens Fiber Cells (Mouse and Other Vertebrates)	p. 305
Macrophages/Osteoclasts (Mouse)	p. 305
Implanted Stem Cells (Mouse and Human)	p. 306
Epithelia (Nematode)	p. 306
Primary Mesenchyme (Sea Urchin)	p. 308
Embryonic Blastomeres (Leech)	p. 309
Haploid Mating (Yeast)	p. 309
Fungal Hyphae	p. 309
Summary of Molecules Driving Cell Fusion: Obstacles to Their Discovery	p. 309
Structural Origins of Cell Fusion Channels?	p. 310
Evolution and Cell Fusion	p. 311
Index	p. 317

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