Hydraulic fracturing chemicals and fluids technology

When classifying fracturing fluids and their additives, it is important that production, operation, and completion engineers understand which chemical should be utilized in different well environments. A user's guide to the many chemicals and chemical additives used in hydraulic fracturing operations, Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Fluids Technology provides an easy-to-use manual to create fluid formulations that will meet project-specific needs while protecting the environment and the life of the well. Fink creates a concise and comprehensive reference that enables the engineer to logically select and use the appropriate chemicals on any hydraulic fracturing job. The first book devoted entirely to hydraulic fracturing chemicals, Fink eliminates the guesswork so the engineer can select the best chemicals needed on the job while providing the best protection for the well, workers and environment.

Author Notes

Johannes Fink is a Professor of Polymer Chemistry at Montanuniversit#65533;t Leoben in Vienna, Austria. Dr. Fink teaches macromolecular chemistry. His career spans for more than thirty years in the field of polymers, including characterization, flame retardancy and pyrolysis of polymers. Johannes has published multiple books and articles, including Petroleum Engineer's Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids, 2nd Edition, Water-Based Chemicals and Technology for Drilling, Completion, and Workover Fluids and Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Fluids Technology, all published by Elsevier.

Preface	p. xi
Acknowledgments	p. xiii
1 General Aspects	p. 1
Stresses and Fractures	p. 1
Fracture Initialization Pressure	p. 1
Pressure Decline Analysis	p. 2
Comparison of Stimulation Techniques	p. 2
Action of a Fracturing Fluid	p. 2
Stages in a Fracturing Job	p. 3
Simulation Methods	p. 3
Productivity	p. 4
Fracture Propagation	p. 5
Proppants	p. 5
Fluid Loss	p. 5
Foam Fluid	p. 6
Discharge Control	p. 6
Testing	p. 6
Proppant Placement	p. 6
Slickwater Fracturing	p. 7
Erosion	p. 8
Fluid Leakoff	p. 8
Damaged Well	p. 8
Crosslinked Fluids	p. 9
Special Applications	p. 9
Coiled Tubing Fracturing	p. 10
Tight Gas	p. 11
Shale Gas	p. 12
Coalbed Methane	p. 12
References	p. 14
2 Fluid Types	p. 17
Comparison of Different Techniques	p. 20
Expert Systems for Assessment	p. 21
Oil-Based Systems	p. 22
Foam-Based Fracturing Fluids	p. 22
Acid Fracturing	p. 23
Encapsulated Acids	p. 24
In situ Formation of Acids	p. 24
Fluid Loss	p. 24
Gel Breaker for Acid Fracturing	p. 25
Special Problems	p. 25
Corrosion Inhibitors	p. 25
Iron Control in Fracturing	p. 25
Enhanced Temperature Stability	p. 26
Chemical Blowing	p. 27
Frost-Resistant Formulation	p. 28
Formation Damage in Gas Wells	p. 28
Characterization of Fracturing Fluids	p. 28
Rheologic Characterization	p. 29
Zirconium-Based Crosslinking Agent	p. 29
Oxidative Gel Breaker	p. 29
Size Exclusion Chromatography	p. 30
Assessment of Proppants	p. 30
References	p. 31
3 Thickeners	p. 35
Thickeners for Water-based Systems	p. 37
Guar	p. 39
Hydroxyethyl Cellulose	p. 42
Biotechnologic Products	p. 42
Viscoelastic Formulations	p. 43
Miscellaneous Polymers	p. 45
Concentrates	p. 45
Thickeners for Oil-based Systems	p. 47
Organic Gel Aluminum Phosphate Ester	p. 47
Increasing the Viscosity of Diesel	p. 49
Viscoelasticity	p. 49
Viscoelastic Thickeners	p. 51
Enhanced Shear Recovery Agents	p. 51
References	p. 54
4 Friction Reducers	p. 59
Incompatibility	p. 59
Polymers	p. 59
Environmental Aspects	p. 60
Carbon Dioxide Foamed Fluids	p. 62
Polymer Emulsions	p. 62
Oil-External Copolymer Emulsions	p. 63
Poly(acrylamide) with Weak Labile Links	p. 63
References	p. 65
5 Fluid Loss Additives	p. 67
Mechanism of Action of Fluid Loss Agents	p. 67
Fluid Loss Measurement	p. 67
Action of Macroscopic Particles	p. 68
Additive Chemicals	p. 70
Granular Starch and Mica	p. 70
Depolymerized Starch	p. 71
Controlled Degradable Fluid Loss Additives	p. 71
Succinoglycan	p. 72
Scleroglucan	p. 73
Poly(orthoester)s	p. 73
Poly(hydroxyacetic acid)	p. 74
Polyphenolics	p. 74
Phthalimide as a Diverting Material	p. 75
Viscoelastic Additives	p. 76
References	p. 78
6 Emulsifiers	p. 81
Oil-in-Water Emulsions	p. 81
Invert Emulsions	p. 82
Water-in-Water Emulsions	p. 82
Oil-in-Water-in-Oil Emulsions	p. 83
Microemulsions	p. 83
Solids-Stabilized Emulsion	p. 84
Biotreated Emulsion	p. 86
Reference	p. 88
7 Demulsifiers	p. 89
Basic Action of Demulsifiers	p. 90
Desired Properties	p. 90
Mechanisms of Demulsification	p. 90
Chemicals	p. 90
Chelating Agents	p. 91
References	p. 92
8 Clay Stabilization	p. 95
Properties of Clays	p. 95
Swelling of Clays	p. 96
Montmorillonite	p. 99
Guidelines	p. 99
Mechanisms Causing instability	p. 100
Kinetics of Swelling of Clays	p. 100
Hydrational Stress	p. 101
Borehole Stability Model	p. 101
Shale Inhibition with Water-Based Muds	p. 101
Inhibiting Reactive Argillaceous Formations	p. 101
Formation Damage by Fluids	p. 102
Swelling Inhibitors	p. 102
Salts	p. 102
Quaternary Ammonium Salts	p. 102
Potassium formate	p. 104
Saccharide Derivatives	p. 104
Sulfonated Asphalt	p. 104
Grafted Copolymers	p. 105
Poly(oxyalkylene amine)s	p. 105
Anionic Polymers	p. 106
Amine Salts of Maleic Imide	p. 107
Guanidyl Copolymer	p. 107
Special Clay Stabilizers	p. 110
References	p. 111
9 pH Control Additives	p. 115
Theory of Buffers	p. 115
pH Control	p. 117
References	p. 119
10 Surfactants	p. 121
Performance Studies	p. 121
Viscoelastic Surfactants	p. 122
Cationic Surfactants	p. 122
Anionic Surfactants	p. 123
Anionic Brominated Surfactants	p. 126
References	p. 127
11 Scale Inhibitors	p. 129
Classification and Mechanism	p. 129
Thermodynamic Inhibitors	p. 131
Kinetic Inhibitors	p. 131
Adherence Inhibitors	p. 132
Interference of Chelate Formers	p. 132
Mathematical Models	p. 132
Optimal Dose	p. 133
Precipitation Squeeze Method	p. 133
Inhibitor Chemicals	p. 133
Water-soluble Inhibitors	p. 134
Oil Soluble Scale Inhibitors	p. 139
High Reservoir Temperatures	p. 141
References	p. 142
12 Foaming Agents	p. 147
Environmentally Safe Fluids	p. 148
Liquid Carbon Dioxide Foams	p. 149
References	p. 150
13 Defoamers	p. 151
Theory of Defoaming	p. 151
Stability of Foams	p. 151
Action of Defoamers	p. 152
Classification of Defoamers	p. 153
Active Ingredients	p. 153
References	p. 156
14 Crosslinking Agents	p. 159
Kinetics of Crosslinking	p. 159
Delayed Crosslinking	p. 159
Crosslinking Additives	p. 159
Borate Systems	p. 159
Titanium Compounds	p. 161
Zirconium Compounds	p. 163
Guar	p. 165
Delayed Crosslinking Additives	p. 166
References	p. 167
15 Gel Stabilizers	p. 169
Chemicals	p. 169
Special Issues	p. 169
Water Softeners	p. 169
Borate Reserve	p. 170
Electron Donor Compounds	p. 171
Effects of pH on Gel Stability	p. 173
References	p. 173
16 Gel Breakers	p. 175
Gel Breaking in Water-Based Systems	p. 175
Oxidative Breakers	p. 176
Hypochlorite Salts	p. 176
Peroxide Breakers	p. 177
Redox Gel Breakers	p. 177
Delayed Release of Acid	p. 177
Hydroxyacetic Acid Condensates	p. 177
Enzyme Gel Breakers	p. 178
Interactions	p. 179
Encapsulated Gel Breakers	p. 179
Gel Breaking of Guar	p. 180
Enzyme Breaking of Guar	p. 182
Viscoelastic Surfactant Gelled Fluids	p. 184
Granules	p. 184
Gel Breakers for Oil-Based Systems	p. 184
References	p. 189
17 Biocides	p. 193
Mechanisms of Growth	p. 194
Growth of Bacteria Supported by Oilfield Chemicals	p. 194
Mathematical Models	p. 194
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria	p. 196
Bacterial Corrosion	p. 196
Performance Control	p. 198
Treatments with Biocides	p. 198
Previously Fractured Formations	p. 198
Intermittent Addition of Biocide	p. 198
Nonbiocidal Control	p. 199
Special Chemicals	p. 200
References	p. 202
18 Proppants	p. 205
Fluid Loss	p. 205
Tracers	p. 206
Proppant Diagenesis	p. 206
Propping Agents	p. 207
Sand	p. 208
Ceramic Particles	p. 208
Bauxite	p. 208
Light-weight Proppants	p. 208
Porous Pack with Fibers	p. 210
Coated Proppants	p. 210
Antisettling Additives	p. 211
Proppant Flowback	p. 213
References	p. 214
19 Special Compositions	p. 217
Heat-Generating System	p. 217
Crosslinkable Synthetic Polymers	p. 218
Single Phase Microemulsion	p. 219
Crosslinking Composition	p. 219
References	p. 219
20 Environmental Aspects	p. 221
Risk Analysis	p. 221
Contaminated Water Reclaim	p. 222
Wastewater from Hydro-fracturing	p. 222
Phosphorus Recovery in Flowback Fluids	p. 223
Green Formulations	p. 224
Biodegradable Chelants	p. 224
Nontoxic Flowback Formulation	p. 225
Crosslinking Agents	p. 225
Self-Degrading Foaming Composition	p. 225
References	p. 226
Index	p. 229

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Table of Contents