Chemistry for the biosciences : the essential concepts

Chemistry pervades our life, giving shape and character to the world around us. It moulds our climate, fuels our transport, gives food its taste and smell. Most of all, chemistry powers life itself. Chemistry for the Biosciences leads students through the essential concepts that are central to understanding biological systems, using everyday examples and analogies to build their confidence in an often daunting subject. Placing an emphasis on clear explanations, it fosters understanding as opposed to rote learning and, by focusing on the key themes that unify the subject, shows how integral chemistry is to the biosciences. With scientific research placing more emphasis on the interface of chemistry and biology than ever before, few can argue the importance to the biology student of mastering the essential chemical concepts that underpin the subject. Chemistry for the Biosciences is the ideal teaching and learning resource to ensure today's biology students grasp these concepts, and appreciate their importance throughout the subject. The Online Resource Centre features illustrations from the book available to download to facilitate lecture preparation and a test bank of multiple choice questions for students.

Author Notes

Jonathan Crowe is a science publisher and science writer, based in Oxford. He received a BSc Honours Biochemistry degree from the University of Warwick in 1997, and has since pursued a career in science publishing, involving the development of textbooks for both the A-Level and undergraduate science markets. His science writing credits include a runner-up prize in the 2001 Daily Telegraph/BASF Young Science Writer Awards. Dr Tony Bradshaw is Head of Section and Principal Lecturer in the School of Biological and Molecular Sciences, Oxford Brookes University. As well as managing the Cell and Molecular Biosciences section, Dr Bradshaw is also School Safety Advisor, and Field Chair for the Cell and Molecular Biology, Biological Chemistry, and Cell Biology and Biotechnology degree programmes. Dr Bradshaw received a BSc Honours degree in Organic Chemistry from the University of Adelaide in 1969, and was awarded a PhD from Flinders University in 1973, with a thesis entitled 'Bridged Ring Systems'. Teaching commitments involve interdisciplinary topics in areas covering molecular biology, biochemistry, biotechnology, pharmacology, toxicology, and organic chemistry. His principal research interest is in molecular oncology, an area in which he has published eleven papers. Dr Paul Monk is Senior Lecturer in Physical Chemistry in the Department of Chemistry and Materials at Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, where he has lectured and researched since 1991. Dr Monk gained a BSc (Hons) in Chemistry and a PhD on electrochemistry from the University of Exeter. His research investigates electrochromism and the development of electrochromic materials, a subject area in which he has published over forty journal articles and several monographs. He is the author of two textbooks, Fundamentals of Electroanalytical Chemistry (Wiley, 2000); and Physical Chemistry: Understanding our Chemical World (Wiley, 2004).

Welcome to the book	p. xvii
Acknowledgements	p. xxi
Periodic table of the elements	p. xxii
1 Introduction: why bother with chemistry?	p. 1
1.1 Science: revealing our world	p. 1
I'm a biologist: why bother with chemistry?	p. 1
1.2 The essential concepts	p. 2
1.3 The language of chemistry	p. 4
Units: making sense of numbers	p. 4
Symbols	p. 5
2 Atoms: the foundations of life	p. 7
2.1 The chemical elements	p. 7
2.2 Atomic composition	p. 9
Protons, electrons, and electrical charge	p. 10
Identifying the composition of an atom: atomic number and mass number	p. 10
The formation of ions	p. 12
Isotopes: varying the number of neutrons	p. 14
Relative abundances and atomic mass	p. 15
Protons and chemical identity	p. 17
2.3 Atomic structure	p. 18
Atomic orbitals	p. 18
2.4 The energy of atoms	p. 20
Orbitals and energy levels	p. 20
Filling up orbitals - the building-up principle	p. 21
The energy of subshells	p. 23
Moving between orbitals: electron excitation	p. 25
Energy levels and quantization	p. 30
2.5 Valence shells and valence electrons	p. 30
2.6 The periodic table	p. 31
The variety of life: not so varied after all?	p. 32
3 Compounds and chemical bonding: bringing atoms together	p. 35
3.1 The formation of compounds	p. 35
The chemical bond: bridging the gap between atoms	p. 36
Which electron configuration is most stable?	p. 37
3.2 Valence shells and Lewis dot symbols	p. 38
Lone pairs of electrons	p. 39
3.3 Bond formation: redistributing valence electrons	p. 40
3.4 The ionic bond: transferring electrons	p. 41
Ionic bonding and full shells: how many electrons are transferred?	p. 43
3.5 The chemical formula	p. 47
3.6 The covalent bond: sharing electrons	p. 48
Covalent compounds and electrical charge	p. 49
The molecular formula: identifying the components of a covalent compound	p. 49
Covalent bonding and the distribution of electrons	p. 49
Molecular orbitals	p. 51
Sigma and pi orbitals	p. 54
3.7 The formation of multiple bonds	p. 55
Valency and number of bonds	p. 55
Sharing one pair of electrons: the single bond	p. 56
Sharing two pairs of electrons: the double bond	p. 56
Sharing three pairs of electrons: the triple bond	p. 57
3.8 Dative bonding: covalent bonding with a twist	p. 58
3.9 Aromatic compounds and conjugated bonds	p. 60
3.10 Polyatomic compounds	p. 64
3.11 Ionic versus covalent bonding	p. 66
Electronegativity: how easily can electrons be transferred?	p. 66
Ionic and covalent bonding in nature: which is most prevalent?	p. 70
4 Molecular forces: holding it all together	p. 73
4.1 Chemical bonding versus non-covalent forces	p. 73
Intramolecular versus intermolecular forces	p. 74
The significance of non-covalent forces	p. 75
4.2 The key characteristics of non-covalent forces	p. 76
4.3 Polarity and polarization	p. 77
How strongly is a bond polarized?	p. 80
Non-polar covalent bonds	p. 80
Polar bonds in non-polar molecules	p. 80
4.4 The key non-covalent forces	p. 82
Dispersion forces	p. 82
Hydrophobic forces, and dispersion forces in biological systems	p. 86
Permanent dipolar interactions	p. 90
Hydrogen bonds	p. 93
Ionic forces	p. 101
4.5 Non-covalent forces: strength in numbers	p. 104
4.5 Breaking intermolecular forces: the three states	p. 107
Changing states	p. 108
The transition between states	p. 111
The impact of non-covalent interactions on melting and boiling points	p. 112
5 Organic compounds 1: the framework of life	p. 116
5.1 Organic chemistry	p. 116
Carbon: its defining features	p. 117
The nature of organic compounds	p. 118
5.2 The framework of organic compounds	p. 120
Representing chemical structures: the structural formula	p. 121
The alkanes: the backbone of organic chemistry	p. 122
The shape of organic compounds	p. 126
Physical properties of the alkanes	p. 128
Chemical properties of the alkanes	p. 129
5.3 Functional groups and the carbon framework	p. 131
The double bond	p. 132
Physical properties of alkenes	p. 135
5.4 Adding functional groups to the carbon framework	p. 137
Alkyl groups	p. 138
The aryl group: a special hydrocarbon group	p. 139
Functional groups and the properties of organic compounds	p. 140
6 Organic compounds 2: adding function to the framework of life	p. 146
6.1 Organic compounds with oxygen-based functional groups	p. 146
The alcohols: the hydroxyl group	p. 147
The ethers: the alkoxy group	p. 151
The aldehydes and ketones: the carbonyl group	p. 153
The carboxylic acids: combining the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups	p. 159
The esters: a modified carboxyl group	p. 162
6.2 Organic compounds and nitrogen-based functional groups	p. 167
The amines: the amino group	p. 167
The amides: the amide group	p. 174
6.3 Other functional groups	p. 178
The thiols and the sulfur-based functional group	p. 178
The haloalkanes and the halogen-based functional group	p. 179
7 Biological macromolecules: providing life's Infrastructure	p. 183
7.1 Amino acids and proteins	p. 183
The composition of amino acids	p. 183
Formation of polypeptides	p. 184
7.2 Carbohydrates	p. 187
The composition of monosaccharides	p. 189
7.3 Lipids	p. 192
Steroids	p. 192
Triacylglycerols	p. 195
Glycerophospholipids	p. 198
7.4 Nucleic acids	p. 201
Nucleotides and their composition	p. 201
Formation of nucleic acids	p. 203
The shape of nucleic acids	p. 205
Nucleic acids: nature's energy stores	p. 207
8 Molecular shape and structure 1: from atoms to small molecules	p. 210
8.1 The link between structure and function	p. 210
Hierarchies of structure	p. 211
8.2 The shape of small molecules	p. 211
Bond lengths	p. 212
8.3 Bond angles	p. 215
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)	p. 216
VSEPR theory and the shape of molecules with multiple bonds	p. 220
8.4 Hybridization and shape	p. 222
Hybridizing different numbers of orbitals	p. 224
8.5 Bond rotation and conformation	p. 231
Conformation versus configuration	p. 233
9 Molecular shape and structure 2: the shape of large molecules	p. 241
9.1 Constructing larger molecules	p. 241
The geometry of joined atoms	p. 242
The sequence of monomers within a polymer	p. 242
Bonding between monomers	p. 244
9.2 The shape of larger molecules	p. 246
Building up structural complexity: a structural hierarchy	p. 246
The hierarchy of biological structure: an overview	p. 255
9.3 Maintaining shape, and allowing flexibility	p. 257
The importance of structural flexibility: muscle contraction	p. 259
The importance of structural flexibility: enzymes	p. 260
10 Chemical analysis 1: how do we know what is there?	p. 267
10.1 What is chemical analysis?	p. 267
10.2 How do we separate out what is there?	p. 268
Filtration	p. 269
Chromatography	p. 270
Electrophoresis	p. 274
10.3 How do we determine what is there?	p. 277
Measuring mass: mass spectrometry	p. 278
10.4 Building up the picture: spectroscopic techniques	p. 285
Spectroscopy and electromagnetic radiation	p. 288
Characterizing the carbon framework: nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy	p. 288
Identifying functional groups: infrared spectroscopy	p. 294
Establishing 3-D structure: X-ray crystallography	p. 300
11 Chemical analysis 2: how do we know how much is there?	p. 305
11.1 The mole	p. 305
Connecting molar quantities to mass	p. 306
11.2 Concentrations	p. 310
Calculating the number of moles of substance in a sample of solution	p. 310
Preparing a solution of known concentration	p. 312
Calculating the concentration of a solution	p. 314
Changing the concentration: solutions and dilutions	p. 315
11.3 Measuring concentrations	p. 318
UV-visible spectrophotometry	p. 318
Titrations	p. 325
Electrochemical sensors	p. 328
12 Isomerism: generating chemical variety	p. 332
12.1 Isomers	p. 332
12.2 Structural isomers	p. 333
Distinguishing structural isomers	p. 333
Structural isomerism and the shape of the carbon framework	p. 335
Structural isomerism and the positioning of functional groups	p. 337
Structural isomerism: unifying chemical families	p. 342
12.3 Stereoisomers	p. 344
Geometric isomers	p. 345
Enantiomers	p. 351
12.4 Chirality	p. 353
How do we distinguish one enantiomer from its mirror image?	p. 358
Chirality in biological systems	p. 360
12.5 The chemistry of isomers	p. 363
The biological chemistry of enantiomers	p. 366
The impact of chirality on medicinal chemistry	p. 367
13 Chemical reactions: bringing molecules to life	p. 372
13.1 What is a chemical reaction?	p. 372
The stoichiometry of chemical reactions	p. 373
13.2 The molecular basis of chemical reactions	p. 375
How do valence electrons move during chemical reactions?	p. 375
Depicting the movement of electrons	p. 376
13.3 Heterolytic reactions	p. 378
Oxidation and reduction	p. 380
Heterolytic reactions and the polarization of bonds	p. 381
13.4 Homolytic reactions	p. 384
Initiation	p. 386
Propagation	p. 387
Termination	p. 389
13.5 Reaction mechanisms	p. 392
Transition states and intermediates	p. 393
Substitution	p. 396
Addition	p. 400
Elimination	p. 406
Condensation	p. 407
Biochemical reactions: from food to energy	p. 412
14 Energy: what makes reactions go?	p. 416
14.1 What is energy?	p. 415
Kinetic energy	p. 417
Potential energy	p. 418
Chemical energy	p. 421
14.2 Energy transfer	p. 423
The transfer of energy as work	p. 425
The transfer of energy as heat	p. 425
Heat versus temperature	p. 427
The spontaneous transfer of heat	p. 428
14.3 Energy transfer and chemical reactions	p. 431
How can we determine the enthalpy change for a reaction?	p. 432
Depicting enthalpy changes: the energy diagram	p. 434
Enthalpy changes and the stability of chemical compounds	p. 436
14.4 Entropy: the spread of energy as the engine of change	p. 438
The link between entropy and energy	p. 439
The overall entropy change in a universe	p. 442
14.5 Gibbs free energy: the driving force of chemical reactions	p. 444
The Gibbs free energy of spontaneous reactions	p. 445
Gibbs free energy and cell metabolism	p. 447
15 Kinetics: what affects the speed of a reaction?	p. 451
15.1 The rate of a reaction	p. 451
What is the rate of a reaction?	p. 453
15.2 The collision theory of reaction rates	p. 457
Increasing the concentration	p. 459
Increasing the temperature	p. 460
15.3 The activation energy: getting reactions started	p. 461
Breaking the energy barrier: the transition state	p. 463
15.4 Catalysis: lowering the activation energy	p. 463
The role of catalysts in chemical reactions	p. 465
15.5 Enzymes: important biological catalysts	p. 470
The specificity of enzymes	p. 471
What happens during enzyme catalysis?	p. 474
15.6 Enzyme kinetics	p. 476
Increasing substrate concentration: the limitation of the enzyme's active site	p. 477
Increasing temperature: the limitation of being a protein	p. 478
16 Equilibria: how far do reactions go?	p. 482
16.1 Equilibrium reactions	p. 482
Equilibrium reactions and chemical change	p. 483
Does it matter which reaction is 'forward' and which is 'back'?	p. 487
16.2 Forward and back reactions: where is the balance struck?	p. 488
The equilibrium constant	p. 489
The magnitude of equilibrium constants	p. 491
16.3 The reaction quotient	p. 495
Predicting the direction of a reaction	p. 497
16.4 Perturbing an equilibrium	p. 499
Changing the concentration of the system	p. 501
Changing the pressure or volume of the system	p. 504
Changing the temperature	p. 506
Using chemical equilibria to our advantage	p. 507
Catalysts and chemical equilibria	p. 509
16.5 Free energy and chemical equilibria	p. 509
Gibbs free energy and the position of equilibrium	p. 512
17 The aqueous environment: the medium of life	p. 515
17.1 Acids and bases: making life happen	p. 515
Defining acids and bases	p. 516
Acids and bases in aqueous solution	p. 517
Pairing up acids and bases: the conjugate acid-base pair	p. 518
17.2 The strength of acids and bases: to what extent does the dissociation reaction occur?	p. 522
Juggling protons: the tug-of-war between conjugate acid-base pairs	p. 524
The acid dissociation constant: to what extent does an acid dissociate?	p. 525
The base dissociation constant: to what extent does a base dissociate?	p. 526
17.3 Keeping things balanced: the ion product of water	p. 528
Making use of the ion product of water	p. 530
Linking K[subscript w prime] K[subscript a] and K[subscript b]	p. 531
17.4 Measuring concentrations: the pH scale	p. 532
The pH of strong and weak acids	p. 534
Changing pH: neutralization reactions	p. 537
pOH: the basic equivalent of pH	p. 538
17.5 Buffer solutions: keeping pH the same	p. 540
How does a buffer solution work?	p. 540
The pH of buffer solutions	p. 545
Epilogue	p. 550
Bibliography	p. 551
Answers to self-check questions	p. 553
Index	p. 559

Available:*

On Order

Summary

Summary

Author Notes

Table of Contents