Scripting computer-supported collaborative learning : cognitive, computational and educational perspectives

Research on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) is a multidisciplinary field located at the intersection of cognitive psychology, computer science, and education. Yet, the different epistemological and theoretical backgrounds of these disciplines often make fruitful exchange between them difficult. CSCL urgently needs to develop and use boundary concepts that can bring these fields closer together to improve cumulative research and development of computer-supported learning environments. Scripting Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning focuses on one term with the potential to become a real boundary concept in CSCL--"scripting".

Scripting Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, which has collected advanced script approaches, demonstrates the opportunities for using synergy to apply the script concept between perspectives and interdisciplinary CSCL approaches to scripting.

This volume represents the state of the art of research on scripting computer-supported collaborative learning and provides a starting point for the development of a common understanding of scripting in CSCL. Research on collaboration scripts has an extraordinary potential for advancing the multidisciplinary endeavor of CSCL research and this book provides a rich basis for further exploring and realizing this potential. As such, it will be a valuable resource for research, development, and teaching.

F. Fischer and I. Kollar and J. M. Haake and H. MandlA. KingN. Rummel and H. SpadaA. Runde and R. Bromme and R. JucksM. Nuckles and A. Ertelt and J. Wittwer and A. RenklF. W. HesseG. AyalaY. Miao and A. Harrer and K. Hoeksema and H. U. HoppeT. Lauer and S. TrahaschJ. M. Haake and H. R. PfisterD. D. SuthersA. Weinberger and K. Stegmann and F. Fischer and H. MandlB. Ertl and B. Kopp and H. MandlJ. KolodnerP. Hakkinen and K. Makitalo-SieglP. Dillenbourg and P. JermannS. Carmien and I. Kollar and G. Fischer and F. FischerG. Stahl

Contributing Authors	p. XVII
Preface	p. XXI
Chapter 1 Introduction: Perspectives on Collaboration Scripts	p. 1
References	p. 9
Part I Cognitive Perspectives
Chapter 2 Scripting Collaborative Learning Processes: A Cognitive Perspective	p. 13
1 Scripts and scripting	p. 15
1.1 Scripts in cognitive psychology	p. 15
1.2 Scripts and scripting in educational contexts	p. 16
2 Cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-cognitive aspects of learning through interaction	p. 17
2.1 Effective learning activities	p. 18
2.2 The need for structuring interaction	p. 23
3 Examples of face-to-face scripted collaboration	p. 24
3.1 Scripted Cooperation	p. 24
3.2 Reciprocal Teaching	p. 26
3.3 Guided Strategic Problem Solving	p. 28
3.4 Ask to Think - Tel Why	p. 30
4 The question of self-regulation of collaboration scripts	p. 32
References	p. 34
Chapter 3 Can People Learn Computer-Mediated Collaboration by Following a Script?	p. 39
1 Background	p. 39
2 Script approaches relevant to the learning-from-script hypothesis	p. 40
2.1 Collaboration scripts in traditional collaboration research	p. 41
2.2 Collaboration scripts in CSCL research	p. 42
3 A script for learning to collaborate	p. 43
3.1 Testing the learning-from-script hypothesis: The experimental framework of our collaboration script	p. 44
3.2 Testing the learning-from-script hypothesis: A script to teach collaboration	p. 46
4 Results in support of the learning-from-script hypothesis from an empirical study	p. 48
4.1 Method	p. 48
4.2 Results	p. 50
5 Conclusions: Can people learn computer-mediated collaboration by following a script?	p. 51
References	p. 53
Chapter 4 Scripting in Net-Based Medical Consultation: The Impact of External Representations on Giving Advice and Explanations	p. 57
1 Background	p. 57
2 Three concepts of scripting: Social roles, explicit scripts, and implicit scripts	p. 61
2.1 Social roles as determinants of the structure of interaction	p. 61
2.2 Cooperation scripts as explicit instructions	p. 62
2.3 External representations as implicit scripts	p. 63
3 Research questions	p. 66
4 Main findings	p. 67
5 Conclusions	p. 69
Acknowledgements	p. 70
References	p. 70
Chapter 5 Scripting Laypersons' Problem Descriptions in Internet-Based Communication with Experts	p. 73
1 Introduction	p. 73
2 Unfavorable features of laypersons' problem descriptions	p. 75
3 Supporting a layperson in providing problem descriptions	p. 76
4 The problem formulation script	p. 77
5 Testing the problem formulation script experimentally	p. 79
5.1 Research questions	p. 79
5.2 Participants and research design	p. 80
5.3 Materials and procedure	p. 80
6 Main findings	p. 83
6.1 Test of the extensiveness prediction	p. 83
6.2 Test of the representativeness prediction	p. 84
6.3 Test of the quality-of-reconstruction prediction	p. 84
7 Discussion	p. 85
Author note	p. 87
References	p. 87
Chapter 6 Discussion: Being Told to Do Something or Just Being Aware of Something? An Alternative Approach to Scripting in CSCL	p. 91
References	p. 97
Part II Computational Perspectives
Chapter 7 Scripting Collaborative Learning in Agent-Based Systems	p. 101
1 Introduction	p. 101
1.1 Software agents and cooperation scripts	p. 102
1.2 Pedagogically and not pedagogically structured domains	p. 103
1.3 Organizational and detailed work processes	p. 103
2 Scripting organizational processes	p. 103
2.1 Designing a cooperation script for the organizational processes	p. 104
2.2 Gracile and Cassiel	p. 104
2.3 Group configuration	p. 106
2.4 Task assignment	p. 108
3 Agents supporting scripting detailed work processes	p. 110
3.1 Agents supporting the detailed work processes	p. 110
3.2 The learners' coordination script	p. 111
4 Conclusions	p. 113
References	p. 114
Chapter 8 Modeling CSCL Scripts - A Reflection on Learning Design Approaches	p. 117
1 Introduction	p. 117
2 Potential uses and system support of CSCL scripts	p. 119
2.1 Design time uses	p. 119
2.2 Runtime uses	p. 120
3 Investigating the capacity of IMS LD for formalising collaborative learning scripts	p. 121
4 An approach to represent CSCL scripts	p. 123
4.1 A conceptual basis for CSCL scripting	p. 124
4.2 Solutions	p. 126
5 Modeling a collaboration script with IMS LD and the CSCL scripting language	p. 128
5.1 How to model the script by using IMS LD	p. 129
5.2 How to model the script by using the scripting language	p. 130
5.3 Comparison of the two approaches	p. 133
6 Conclusions	p. 133
References	p. 134
Chapter 9 Scripted Anchored Discussion of Multimedia Lecture Recordings	p. 137
1 Introduction	p. 137
2 Structuring and sequencing of online discussion	p. 140
2.1 Artifact-centered discussion as exchange of digital annotations	p. 140
2.2 Representation of discussion notes	p. 142
2.3 Systems for anchored discussion of lecture recordings	p. 142
3 Scripted anchored discussion of lecture recordings	p. 145
4 A formal model for the description of scripted anchored discussion	p. 148
5 Conclusion and future work	p. 150
References	p. 151
Chapter 10 Flexible Scripting in Net-Based Learning Groups	p. 155
1 Background	p. 155
2 Basic concepts and assumptions	p. 157
3 Supporting flexible scripting	p. 159
4 Definition of composite CSCL scripts	p. 160
4.1 Atomic CSCL scripts	p. 161
4.2 Composite CSCL scripts	p. 164
5 Editing flexible CSCL scripts	p. 167
5.1 Editing atomic scripts	p. 167
5.2 Editing composite scripts	p. 167
6 Execution of a CSCL script	p. 168
7 Implementation	p. 169
8 Discussion	p. 170
9 Conclusions	p. 172
References	p. 173
Chapter 11 Discussion: Roles of Computational Scripts	p. 177
1 Offloading tasks	p. 178
2 Fostering productive interactions	p. 179
2.1 Setting up the conditions for interaction	p. 180
2.2 Anchored discussion as a context for scripting	p. 181
2.3 Micro-managing interaction	p. 181
3 Communicating designs	p. 182
4 Scripts as resources	p. 184
References	p. 185
Part III Educational Perspectives
Chapter 12 Scripting Argumentative Knowledge Construction in Computer-Supported Learning Environments	p. 191
1 Argumentative knowledge construction	p. 193
2 Script components for argumentative knowledge construction	p. 195
3 Goals of the empirical studies	p. 198
4 Method	p. 198
4.1 Sample and setting	p. 198
4.2 Learning task	p. 199
4.3 Computer-supported learning environment	p. 199
4.4 Procedure	p. 199
4.5 Instruments	p. 200
4.6 Treatments	p. 201
5 Results	p. 203
6 Conclusions	p. 205
7 Future research	p. 208
Acknowledgements	p. 208
References	p. 209
Chapter 13 Supporting Collaborative Learning in Videoconferencing Using Collaboration Scripts and Content Schemes	p. 213
1 Collaborative learning	p. 214
2 Fostering collaborative learning in videoconferencing	p. 217
2.1 Collaboration scripts	p. 217
2.2 Content schemes	p. 218
3 Research questions	p. 220
4 Study 1	p. 221
4.1 Method of study 1	p. 221
4.1.1 Collaboration script for collaborative teaching	p. 221
4.1.2 Content scheme for collaborative teaching	p. 222
4.1.3 Instruments	p. 223
4.2 Results of study 1	p. 223
4.3 Discussion of study 1	p. 225
5 Study 2	p. 226
5.1 Method of study 2	p. 226
5.1.1 Collaboration script for collaborative problem solving	p. 227
5.1.2 Content scheme for collaborative problem solving	p. 227
5.1.3 Instruments	p. 228
5.2 Results of study 2	p. 228
5.3 Discussion of study 2	p. 229
6 General discussion	p. 229
7 Conclusions	p. 231
Acknowledgements	p. 232
References	p. 232
Chapter 14 The Roles of Scripts in Promoting Collaborative Discourse in Learning by Design	p. 237
1 Conceptual background on scripts	p. 241
1.1 Scripts as cognitive structures that promote productive participation	p. 241
1.2 Scripts as classroom practices	p. 243
2 Setting the context: More on learning by design	p. 245
3 Design of scripted activity structures (classroom scripts) and their sequencing to promote collaboration and discourse in LBD	p. 248
4 Promoting script learning in LBD - instructional strategies	p. 253
4.1 Repeated deliberative scaffolded practice of scripted activity structures (classroom scripts)	p. 253
4.2 Launcher Units for introducing scripted activity structures	p. 255
5 Discourse, collaboration, and learning	p. 257
6 Concluding thoughts	p. 260
References	p. 261
Chapter 15 Discussion: Educational Perspectives on Scripting CSCL	p. 263
1 Introduction	p. 263
2 Different notions of scripting	p. 264
3 Methodological challenges	p. 267
4 Design issues and pedagogical challenges	p. 267
5 Conclusions	p. 269
References	p. 270
Part IV Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Chapter 16 Designing Integrative Scripts	p. 275
1 Introduction	p. 275
2 Examples of CSCL scripts	p. 276
2.1 The "Concept Grid" script	p. 276
2.2 The "ArgueGraph" script	p. 278
2.3 The "UniverSante" script	p. 279
2.4 The "Studio" script	p. 281
3 The diversity of scripts	p. 281
3.1 Role: Why playing a script?	p. 282
3.2 Congruence: Do they play the script?	p. 283
3.3 Granularity: Macro versus micro-scripting	p. 285
3.4 Integrated learning	p. 285
4 Benefits and risks in computerized scripts	p. 287
5 The structure of scripts	p. 289
6 The SWISH model	p. 291
7 Generalizing scripts	p. 293
7.1 Descriptive model	p. 293
7.2 Script schemata	p. 294
7.3 Generalization hierarchy	p. 295
7.4 Executable model	p. 297
8 Synthesis	p. 298
Acknowledgements	p. 299
References	p. 300
Chapter 17 The Interplay of Internal and External Scripts	p. 303
1 Introduction	p. 303
2 Scripts from a distributed cognition perspective	p. 305
2.1 Scripts residing in the person-solo: Internal scripts	p. 306
2.2 Scripts residing in an individual's surround: External scripts	p. 308
2.3 Scripts in the person-plus-surround system: Interaction between internal and external scripts	p. 309
3 Analyzing scripts from a distributed cognition perspective	p. 310
4 Examples for an interplay of internal and external scripts	p. 312
4.1 Memory aiding prompting system (MAPS): A tool for living	p. 312
4.2 Collaborative argumentation script: A tool for learning	p. 315
5 Internal and external scripts in a tool for living and a tool for learning scenario	p. 318
6 Conclusions	p. 321
Acknowledgements	p. 324
References	p. 324
Chapter 18 Discussion: Scripting Group Cognition	p. 327
1 Introduction	p. 327
2 Scripts as cognitive models	p. 328
3 Scripts as social resources	p. 329
4 Scripts as computer-based resources	p. 330
5 Scripting group cognition	p. 332
6 Scripts for framing collaborative interactions	p. 333
7 Scripts for learning and for life	p. 334
References	p. 335
Index	p. 337

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