Springer handbook of electronic and photonic materials

Interdisciplinary approach encompasses research in disciplines such as materials science, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, physics and chemistry

Author Notes

Safa Kasap is currently a Professor and Canada Research Chair in Electronic Materials and Devices in the Electrical Engineering Department at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. He obtained his BSc (1976), MSc (1978) and PhD (1983) degrees from the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London, specializing in amorphous semiconductors and chalcogenide glasses. In 1996 he was awarded the DSc (Engineering) from London University for his research contributions to materials science in electrical engineering. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the Institute of Physics and the Institute of Materials. His research interests are in amorphous semiconductors, glasses for photonics, photoconductors, electrical, optical and thermal properties of materials, and related topics, with more than one hundred refereed journal papers in these areas. He is the Deputy Editor of the Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (Springer), and a Series Editor for the Series on Materials in Electronic and Optoelectronics (Wiley).

Peter Capper has worked for the same company (through several name changes) for over 30 years in the area of II-VI compounds for infrared applications, latterly as a Materials Team Leader in charge of group of scientists working on the growth and characterisation of these compounds. This has been mainly in the area of cadmium mercury telluride and cadmium telluride, the premier infrared materials, by a range of bulk and epitaxial techniques. He has given several invited talks in Japan, USA and Europe, has coauthored over 100 Journal papers, holds one patent and has edited/written 5 books in the field since 1987. He is on the Editorial Board of the J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. (Springer) and is a Series Editor for Wiley on Materials for Electronics and Optoelectronics.

List of Abbreviations	p. XXIX
Introduction
1 Perspectives on Electronic and Optoelectronic Materials	p. 3
1.1 The Early Years	p. 4
1.2 The Silicon Age	p. 4
1.3 The Compound Semiconductors	p. 8
1.4 From Faraday to Today	p. 14
References	p. 14
Part A Fundamental Properties
2 Electrical Conduction in Metals and Semiconductors	p. 19
2.1 Fundamentals: Drift Velocity, Mobility and Conductivity	p. 20
2.2 Matthiessen's Rule	p. 22
2.3 Resistivity of Metals	p. 23
2.4 Solid Solutions and Nordheim's Rule	p. 26
2.5 Carrier Scattering in Semiconductors	p. 28
2.6 The Boltzmann Transport Equation	p. 29
2.7 Resistivity of Thin Polycrystalline Films	p. 30
2.8 Inhomogeneous Media. Effective Media Approximation	p. 32
2.9 The Hall Effect	p. 35
2.10 High Electric Field Transport	p. 37
2.11 Avalanche	p. 38
2.12 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas	p. 39
2.13 One Dimensional Conductance	p. 41
2.14 The Quantum Hall Effect	p. 42
References	p. 44
3 Optical Properties of Electronic Materials: Fundamentals and Characterization	p. 47
3.1 Optical Constants	p. 47
3.2 Refractive Index	p. 50
3.3 Optical Absorption	p. 53
3.4 Thin Film Optics	p. 70
3.5 Optical Materials	p. 74
References	p. 76
4 Magnetic Properties of Electronic Materials	p. 79
4.1 Traditional Magnetism	p. 81
4.2 Unconventional Magnetism	p. 93
References	p. 99
5 Defects in Monocrystalline Silicon	p. 101
5.1 Technological Impact of Intrinsic Point Defects Aggregates	p. 102
5.2 Thermophysical Properties of Intrinsic Point Defects	p. 103
5.3 Aggregates of Intrinsic Point Defects	p. 104
5.4 Formation of OSF Ring	p. 115
References	p. 117
6 Diffusion in Semiconductors	p. 121
6.1 Basic Concepts	p. 122
6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms	p. 122
6.3 Diffusion Regimes	p. 123
6.4 Internal Electric Fields	p. 126
6.5 Measurement of Diffusion Coefficients	p. 126
6.6 Hydrogen in Semiconductors	p. 127
6.7 Diffusion in Group IV Semiconductors	p. 128
6.8 Diffusion in III-V Compounds	p. 130
6.9 Diffusion in II-VI Compounds	p. 131
6.10 Conclusions	p. 133
6.11 General Reading and References	p. 133
References	p. 133
7 Photoconductivity in Materials Research	p. 137
7.1 Steady State Photoconductivity Methods	p. 138
7.2 Transient Photoconductivity Experiments	p. 142
References	p. 146
8 Electronic Properties of Semiconductor Interfaces	p. 147
8.1 Experimental Database	p. 149
8.2 IFIGS-and-Electronegativity Theory	p. 153
8.3 Comparison of Experiment and Theory	p. 155
8.4 Final Remarks	p. 159
References	p. 159
9 Charge Transport in Disordered Materials	p. 161
9.1 General Remarks on Charge Transport in Disordered Materials	p. 163
9.2 Charge Transport in Disordered Materials via Extended States	p. 167
9.3 Hopping Charge Transport in Disordered Materials via Localized States	p. 169
9.4 Concluding Remarks	p. 184
References	p. 185
10 Dielectric Response	p. 187
10.1 Definition of Dielectric Response	p. 188
10.2 Frequency-Dependent Linear Responses	p. 190
10.3 Information Contained in the Relaxation Response	p. 196
10.4 Charge Transport	p. 208
10.5 A Few Final Comments	p. 211
References	p. 211
11 Ionic Conduction and Applications	p. 213
11.1 Conduction in Ionic Solids	p. 214
11.2 Fast Ion Conduction	p. 216
11.3 Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conduction	p. 221
11.4 Applications	p. 223
11.5 Future Trends	p. 226
References	p. 226
Part B Growth and Characterization
12 Bulk Crystal Growth - Methods and Materials	p. 231
12.1 History	p. 232
12.2 Techniques	p. 233
12.3 Materials Grown	p. 240
12.4 Conclusions	p. 251
References	p. 251
13 Single-Crystal Silicon: Growth and Properties	p. 255
13.1 Overview	p. 256
13.2 Starting Materials	p. 257
13.3 Single-Crystal Growth	p. 258
13.4 New Crystal Growth Methods	p. 266
References	p. 268
14 Epitaxial Crystal Growth: Methods and Materials	p. 271
14.1 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE)	p. 271
14.2 Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)	p. 280
14.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)	p. 290
References	p. 299
15 Narrow-Bandgap II-VI Semiconductors: Growth	p. 303
15.1 Bulk Growth Techniques	p. 304
15.2 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE)	p. 308
15.3 Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE)	p. 312
15.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)	p. 317
15.5 Alternatives to CMT	p. 320
References	p. 321
16 Wide-Bandgap II-VI Semiconductors: Growth and Properties	p. 325
16.1 Crystal Properties	p. 326
16.2 Epitaxial Growth	p. 328
16.3 Bulk Crystal Growth	p. 333
16.4 Conclusions	p. 339
References	p. 340
17 Structural Characterization	p. 343
17.1 Radiation-Material Interactions	p. 344
17.2 Particle-Material Interactions	p. 345
17.3 X-Ray Diffraction	p. 348
17.4 Optics, Imaging and Electron Diffraction	p. 351
17.5 Characterizing Functional Activity	p. 362
17.6 Sample Preparation	p. 362
17.7 Case Studies - Complementary Characterization of Electronic and Optoelectronic Materials	p. 364
17.8 Concluding Remarks	p. 370
References	p. 370
18 Surface Chemical Analysis	p. 373
18.1 Electron Spectroscopy	p. 373
18.2 Glow-Discharge Spectroscopies (GDOES and GDMS)	p. 376
18.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)	p. 377
18.4 Conclusion	p. 384
19 Thermal Properties and Thermal Analysis: Fundamentals, Experimental Techniques and Applications	p. 385
19.1 Heat Capacity	p. 386
19.2 Thermal Conductivity	p. 391
19.3 Thermal Expansion	p. 396
19.4 Enthalpic Thermal Properties	p. 398
19.5 Temperature-Modulated DSC (TMDSC)	p. 403
References	p. 406
20 Electrical Characterization of Semiconductor Materials and Devices	p. 409
20.1 Resistivity	p. 410
20.2 Hall Effect	p. 418
20.3 Capacitance-Voltage Measurements	p. 421
20.4 Current-Voltage Measurements	p. 426
20.5 Charge Pumping	p. 428
20.6 Low-Frequency Noise	p. 430
20.7 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy	p. 434
References	p. 436
Part C Materials for Electronics
21 Single-Crystal Silicon: Electrical and Optical Properties	p. 441
21.1 Silicon Basics	p. 441
21.2 Electrical Properties	p. 451
21.3 Optical Properties	p. 472
References	p. 478
22 Silicon-Germanium: Properties, Growth and Applications	p. 481
22.1 Physical Properties of Silicon-Germanium	p. 482
22.2 Optical Properties of SiGe	p. 488
22.3 Growth of Silicon-Germanium	p. 492
22.4 Polycrystalline Silicon-Germanium	p. 494
References	p. 497
23 Gallium Arsenide	p. 499
23.1 Bulk Growth of GaAs	p. 502
23.2 Epitaxial Growth of GaAs	p. 507
23.3 Diffusion in Gallium Arsenide	p. 511
23.4 Ion Implantation into GaAs	p. 513
23.5 Crystalline Defects in GaAs	p. 514
23.6 Impurity and Defect Analysis of GaAs (Chemical)	p. 517
23.7 Impurity and Defect Analysis of GaAs (Electrical)	p. 518
23.8 Impurity and Defect Analysis of GaAs (Optical)	p. 521
23.9 Assessment of Complex Heterostructures	p. 522
23.10 Electrical Contacts to GaAs	p. 524
23.11 Devices Based on GaAs (Microwave)	p. 524
23.12 Devices based on GaAs (Electro-optical)	p. 527
23.13 Other Uses for GaAs	p. 532
23.14 Conclusions	p. 532
References	p. 533
24 High-Temperature Electronic Materials: Silicon Carbide and Diamond	p. 537
24.1 Material Properties and Preparation	p. 540
24.2 Electronic Devices	p. 547
24.3 Summary	p. 557
References	p. 558
25 Amorphous Semiconductors: Structure, Optical, and Electrical Properties	p. 565
25.1 Electronic States	p. 565
25.2 Structural Properties	p. 568
25.3 Optical Properties	p. 570
25.4 Electrical Properties	p. 573
25.5 Light-Induced Phenomena	p. 575
25.6 Nanosized Amorphous Structure	p. 577
References	p. 578
26 Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon	p. 581
26.1 Reactions in SiH[subscript 4] and SiH[subscript 4]/H[subscript 2] Plasmas	p. 581
26.2 Film Growth on a Surface	p. 583
26.3 Defect Density Determination for a-Si:H and [Mu]c-Si:H	p. 589
26.4 Device Applications	p. 590
26.5 Recent Progress in Material Issues Related to Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells	p. 591
26.6 Summary	p. 594
References	p. 594
27 Ferroelectric Materials	p. 597
27.1 Ferroelectric Materials	p. 601
27.2 Ferroelectric Materials Fabrication Technology	p. 608
27.3 Ferroelectric Applications	p. 616
References	p. 622
28 Dielectric Materials for Microelectronics	p. 625
28.1 Gate Dielectrics	p. 630
28.2 Isolation Dielectrics	p. 647
28.3 Capacitor Dielectrics	p. 647
28.4 Interconnect Dielectrics	p. 651
28.5 Summary	p. 653
References	p. 653
29 Thin Films	p. 659
29.1 Deposition Methods	p. 661
29.2 Structure	p. 682
29.3 Properties	p. 692
29.4 Concluding Remarks	p. 708
References	p. 711
30 Thick Films	p. 717
30.1 Thick Film Processing	p. 718
30.2 Substrates	p. 720
30.3 Thick Film Materials	p. 721
30.4 Components and Assembly	p. 724
30.5 Sensors	p. 728
References	p. 731
Part D Materials for Optoelectronics and Photonics
31 III-V Ternary and Quaternary Compounds	p. 735
31.1 Introduction to III-V Ternary and Quaternary Compounds	p. 735
31.2 Interpolation Scheme	p. 736
31.3 Structural Parameters	p. 737
31.4 Mechanical, Elastic and Lattice Vibronic Properties	p. 739
31.5 Thermal Properties	p. 741
31.6 Energy Band Parameters	p. 743
31.7 Optical Properties	p. 748
31.8 Carrier Transport Properties	p. 750
References	p. 751
32 Group III Nitrides	p. 753
32.1 Crystal Structures of Nitrides	p. 755
32.2 Lattice Parameters of Nitrides	p. 756
32.3 Mechanical Properties of Nitrides	p. 757
32.4 Thermal Properties of Nitrides	p. 761
32.5 Electrical Properties of Nitrides	p. 766
32.6 Optical Properties of Nitrides	p. 777
32.7 Properties of Nitride Alloys	p. 791
32.8 Summary and Conclusions	p. 794
References	p. 795
33 Electron Transport Within the III-V Nitride Semiconductors, GaN, AIN, and InN: A Monte Carlo Analysis	p. 805
33.1 Electron Transport Within Semiconductors and the Monte Carlo Simulation Approach	p. 806
33.2 Steady-State and Transient Electron Transport Within Bulk Wurtzite GaN, AIN, and InN	p. 810
33.3 Electron Transport Within III-V Nitride Semiconductors: A Review	p. 822
33.4 Conclusions	p. 826
References	p. 826
34 II-IV Semiconductors for Optoelectronics: CdS, CdSe, CdTe	p. 829
34.1 Background	p. 829
34.2 Solar Cells	p. 829
34.3 Radiation Detectors	p. 834
34.4 Conclusions	p. 840
References	p. 840
35 Doping Aspects of Zn-Based Wide-Band-Gap Semiconductors	p. 843
35.1 ZnSe	p. 843
35.2 ZnBeSe	p. 848
35.3 ZnO	p. 849
References	p. 851
36 II-VI Narrow-Bandgap Semiconductors for Optoelectronics	p. 855
36.1 Applications and Sensor Design	p. 858
36.2 Photoconductive Detectors in HgCdTe and Related Alloys	p. 860
36.3 Sprite Detectors	p. 864
36.4 Photoconductive Detectors in Closely Related Alloys	p. 866
36.5 Conclusions on Photoconductive HgCdTe Detectors	p. 867
36.6 Photovoltaic Devices in HgCdTe	p. 867
36.7 Emission Devices in II-VI Semiconductors	p. 882
36.8 Potential for Reduced-Dimensionality HgTe-CdTe	p. 883
References	p. 883
37 Optoelectronic Devices and Materials	p. 887
37.1 Introduction to Optoelectronic Devices	p. 888
37.2 Light-Emitting Diodes and Semiconductor Lasers	p. 890
37.3 Single-Mode Lasers	p. 904
37.4 Optical Amplifiers	p. 906
37.5 Modulators	p. 907
37.6 Photodetectors	p. 911
37.7 Conclusions	p. 914
References	p. 915
38 Liquid Crystals	p. 917
38.1 Introduction to Liquid Crystals	p. 917
38.2 The Basic Physics of Liquid Crystals	p. 924
38.3 Liquid-Crystal Devices	p. 931
38.4 Materials for Displays	p. 940
References	p. 949
39 Organic Photoconductors	p. 953
39.1 Chester Carlson and Xerography	p. 954
39.2 Operational Considerations and Critical Materials Properties	p. 956
39.3 OPC Characterization	p. 965
39.4 OPC Architecture and Composition	p. 967
39.5 Photoreceptor Fabrication	p. 976
39.6 Summary	p. 977
References	p. 978
40 Luminescent Materials	p. 983
40.1 Luminescent Centres	p. 985
40.2 Interaction with the Lattice	p. 987
40.3 Thermally Stimulated Luminescence	p. 989
40.4 Optically (Photo-)Stimulated Luminescence	p. 990
40.5 Experimental Techniques - Photoluminescence	p. 991
40.6 Applications	p. 992
40.7 Representative Phosphors	p. 995
References	p. 995
41 Nano-Engineered Tunable Photonic Crystals in the Near-IR and Visible Electromagnetic Spectrum	p. 997
41.1 PC Overview	p. 998
41.2 Traditional Fabrication Methodologies for Static PCs	p. 1001
41.3 Tunable PCs	p. 1011
41.4 Summary and Conclusions	p. 1014
References	p. 1015
42 Quantum Wells, Superlattices, and Band-Gap Engineering	p. 1021
42.1 Principles of Band-Gap Engineering and Quantum Confinement	p. 1022
42.2 Optoelectronic Properties of Quantum-Confined Structures	p. 1024
42.3 Emitters	p. 1032
42.4 Detectors	p. 1034
42.5 Modulators	p. 1036
42.6 Future Directions	p. 1037
42.7 Conclusions	p. 1038
References	p. 1038
43 Glasses for Photonic Integration	p. 1041
43.1 Main Attributes of Glasses as Photonic Materials	p. 1042
43.2 Glasses for Integrated Optics	p. 1050
43.3 Laser Glasses for Integrated Light Sources	p. 1053
43.4 Summary	p. 1057
References	p. 1059
44 Optical Monlinearity in Photonic Glasses	p. 1063
44.1 Third-Order Nonlinearity in Homogeneous Glass	p. 1064
44.2 Second-Order Nonlinearity in Poled Glass	p. 1069
44.3 Particle-Embedded Systems	p. 1070
44.4 Photoinduced Phenomena	p. 1071
44.5 Summary	p. 1072
References	p. 1072
45 Nonlinear Optoelectronic Materials	p. 1075
45.1 Background	p. 1075
45.2 Illumination-Dependent Refractive Index and Nonlinear Figures of Merit (FOM)	p. 1077
45.3 Bulk and Multi-Quantum-Well (MQW) Inorganic Crystalline Semiconductors	p. 1080
45.4 Organic Materials	p. 1084
45.5 Nanocrystals	p. 1087
45.6 Other Nonlinear Materials	p. 1088
45.7 Conclusions	p. 1089
References	p. 1089
Part E Novel Materials and Selected Applications
46 Solar Cells and Photovoltaics	p. 1095
46.1 Figures of Merit for Solar Cells	p. 1096
46.2 Crystalline Silicon	p. 1098
46.3 Amorphous Silicon	p. 1100
46.4 GaAs Solar Cells	p. 1101
46.5 CdTe Thin-Film Solar Cells	p. 1102
46.6 CulnGaSe[subscript 2] (CIGS) Thin-Film Solar Cells	p. 1103
46.7 Conclusions	p. 1104
References	p. 1105
47 Silicon on Mechanically Flexible Substrates for Large-Area Electronics	p. 1107
47.1 a-Si:H TFTs on Flexible Substrates	p. 1108
47.2 Field-Effect Transport in Amorphous Films	p. 1108
47.3 Electronic Transport Under Mechanical Stress	p. 1113
References	p. 1118
48 Photoconductors for X-Ray Image Detectors	p. 1121
48.1 X-Ray Photoconductors	p. 1123
48.2 Metrics of Detector Performance	p. 1131
48.3 Conclusion	p. 1136
References	p. 1136
49 Phase-Change Optical Recording	p. 1139
49.1 Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs)	p. 1140
49.2 Super-RENS Discs	p. 1144
49.3 In Lieu of Conclusion	p. 1145
References	p. 1145
50 Carbon Nanotubes and Bucky Materials	p. 1147
50.1 Carbon Nanotubes	p. 1147
50.2 Bucky Materials	p. 1153
References	p. 1153
51 Magnetic Information-Storage Materials	p. 1155
51.1 Magnetic Recording Technology	p. 1156
51.2 Magnetic Random-Access Memory	p. 1185
51.3 Extraordinary Magnetoresistance (EMR)	p. 1189
51.4 Summary	p. 1189
References	p. 1189
52 High-Temperature Superconductors	p. 1193
52.1 The Superconducting State	p. 1195
52.2 Cuprate High-T[subscript c] Superconductors: An Overview	p. 1202
52.3 Physical Properties of Cuprate Superconductors	p. 1207
52.4 Superconducting Films	p. 1212
52.5 The Special Case of MgB[subscript 2]	p. 1214
52.6 Summary	p. 1216
References	p. 1216
53 Molecular Electronics	p. 1219
53.1 Electrically Conductive Organic Compounds	p. 1220
53.2 Materials	p. 1223
53.3 Plastic Electronics	p. 1225
53.4 Molecular-Scale Electronics	p. 1229
53.5 DNA Electronics	p. 1235
53.6 Conclusions	p. 1236
References	p. 1237
54 Organic Materials for Chemical Sensing	p. 1241
54.1 Analyte Requirements	p. 1242
54.2 Brief Review of Inorganic Materials	p. 1243
54.3 Macrocylic Compounds for Sensing	p. 1245
54.4 Sensing with Phthalocyanine and Porphyrin	p. 1250
54.5 Polymeric Materials	p. 1255
54.6 Cavitand Molecules	p. 1259
54.7 Concluding Remarks	p. 1261
References	p. 1262
55 Packaging Materials	p. 1267
55.1 Package Applications	p. 1268
55.2 The Materials Challenge of Electronic Packaging	p. 1269
55.3 Materials Coefficient of Thermal Expansion	p. 1272
55.4 Wirebond Materials	p. 1272
55.5 Solder Interconnects	p. 1273
55.6 Substrates	p. 1278
55.7 Underfill and Encapsulants	p. 1280
55.8 Electrically Conductive Adhesives (ECAs)	p. 1281
55.9 Thermal Issues	p. 1283
55.10 Summary	p. 1284
References	p. 1285
Acknowledgements	p. 1287
About the Authors	p. 1291
Detailed Contents	p. 1307
Glossary of Defining Terms	p. 1333
Subject Index	p. 1367

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