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Summary
Summary
Offshore oil and gas production was conducted throughout the entire 20th century, but the industry's modern importance and vibrancy did not start until the early 1970s, when the North Sea became a major producer. Since then, the expansion of the offshore oil industry has been continuous and rapid.
Pipelines, and more generally long tubular structures, are major oil and gas industry tools used in exploration, drilling, production, and transmission. Installing and operating tubular structures in deep waters places unique demands on them. Technical challenges within the field have spawned significant research and development efforts in a broad range of areas.
Volume I addresses problems of buckling and collapse of long inelastic cylinders under various loads encountered in the offshore arena. Several of the solutions are also directly applicable to land pipelines. The approach of Mechanics of Offshore Pipelines is problem oriented. The background of each problem and scenario are first outlined and each discussion finishes with design recommendations.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xi |
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Offshore Pipeline Design Considerations | p. 6 |
1.2 Buckling and Collapse of Structures | p. 8 |
1.3 Buckle Propagation in Offshore Pipelines | p. 12 |
2 Offshore Facilities and Pipeline Installation Methods | p. 15 |
2.1 Offshore Platforms and Related Production Systems | p. 16 |
2.1.1 Fixed Platforms | p. 16 |
2.1.2 Floating and Tethered Platforms | p. 22 |
2.2 Offshore Pipeline Installation Methods | p. 34 |
2.2.1 S-Lay | p. 34 |
2.2.2 J-Lay | p. 38 |
2.2.3 Reeling | p. 43 |
2.2.4 Towing | p. 48 |
2.3 The Mardi Gras Project | p. 52 |
3 Pipe and Tube Manufacturing Processes | p. 59 |
3.1 Steelmaking for Line Pipe | p. 60 |
3.1.1 Strengthening of Steel | p. 60 |
3.2 Plate Production | p. 63 |
3.2.1 Steelmaking | p. 64 |
3.2.2 Vertical Continuous Casting of Slabs | p. 64 |
3.2.3 Plate Rolling | p. 65 |
3.3 Seamless Pipe | p. 70 |
3.3.1 Continuous Casting of Round Billets | p. 70 |
3.3.2 Plug Mill | p. 72 |
3.3.3 Mandrel Mill | p. 74 |
3.3.4 Pilger Mill | p. 76 |
3.4 Electric Resistance Welded Pipe | p. 78 |
3.5 Spiral Weld Pipe | p. 80 |
3.6 UOE Pipe Manufacture | p. 81 |
3.7 JCO Forming | p. 86 |
4 Buckling and Collapse Under External Pressure | p. 89 |
4.1 Elastic Buckling | p. 89 |
4.1.1 Imperfect Pipe | p. 92 |
4.2 Plastic Buckling | p. 94 |
4.2.1 Lateral Pressure | p. 96 |
4.2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure | p. 97 |
4.2.3 Pressure with Zero Axial Strain | p. 97 |
4.3 Nonlinear Formulation | p. 99 |
4.3.1 Kinematics | p. 100 |
4.3.2 Constitutive Behavior | p. 100 |
4.3.3 Principle of Virtual Work | p. 101 |
4.3.4 Examples | p. 102 |
4.4 Factors Affecting Pipe Collapse | p. 104 |
4.4.1 Collapse Pressure Experiments | p. 104 |
4.4.2 Prediction of Collapse Pressures | p. 106 |
4.4.3 Effect of Initial Ovality | p. 108 |
4.4.4 Type of Pressure Loading | p. 111 |
4.4.5 Wall Thickness Variations | p. 112 |
4.4.6 Effect of Material Stress-Strain Response | p. 114 |
4.4.7 Residual Stresses | p. 115 |
4.4.8 Anisotropic Yielding | p. 115 |
4.4.9 An Approximate Estimate of Collapse Pressure | p. 117 |
4.5 Representative Seamless Pipe Imperfections | p. 118 |
4.5.1 Imperfection Scanning System | p. 118 |
4.5.2 Data Reduction | p. 119 |
4.5.3 Four Examples | p. 121 |
4.6 Conclusions and Design Recommendations | p. 128 |
5 Collapse of UOE Pipe Under External Pressure | p. 131 |
5.1 Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe | p. 131 |
5.2 Prediction of Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe | p. 136 |
5.3 Improvement of Compressive Properties by Heat Treatment of the Pipe | p. 137 |
5.4 One-Dimensional Model of UOE Pipe Forming | p. 140 |
5.5 Two-Dimensional Models of UOE/UOC | p. 144 |
5.5.1 UOE/UOC Forming Steps | p. 144 |
5.5.2 Numerical Simulation | p. 147 |
5.5.3 An Example of UOE Forming | p. 148 |
5.5.4 Parametric Study-Optimization of UOE/UOC | p. 155 |
5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 161 |
6 Collapse of Dented Pipes Under External Pressure | p. 164 |
6.1 Dent Characteristics | p. 164 |
6.2 Denting and Collapse Experiments | p. 165 |
6.2.1 Indention | p. 165 |
6.2.2 Collapse Experiments | p. 168 |
6.3 Modeling of Denting and Collapse | p. 170 |
6.3.1 Prediction of Collapse Pressure of Dented Tubes | p. 171 |
6.4 Universal Collapse Resistance Curves for Dented Pipes | p. 175 |
6.4.1 Localization of Collapse Under External Pressure | p. 175 |
6.4.2 The Universal Collapse Resistance Curve | p. 177 |
6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 180 |
7 Buckling and Collapse Under Combined External Pressure and Tension | p. 181 |
7.1 Elastic Buckling | p. 183 |
7.2 Plastic Buckling | p. 185 |
7.3 Nonlinear Formulation | p. 186 |
7.3.1 Examples | p. 187 |
7.4 Collapse Under External Pressure and Tension | p. 188 |
7.4.1 Experimental Results and Numerical Predictions | p. 190 |
7.5 Additional Parametric Study | p. 192 |
7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 194 |
8 Inelastic Response, Buckling and Collapse Under Pure Bending | p. 196 |
8.1 Features of Inelastic Bending | p. 196 |
8.2 Bending Experiments | p. 198 |
8.3 Formulation | p. 208 |
8.3.1 Kinematics | p. 209 |
8.3.2 Constitutive Behavior | p. 210 |
8.3.3 Principle of Virtual Work | p. 210 |
8.3.4 Bifurcation Buckling Under Pure Bending | p. 211 |
8.4 Predictions | p. 214 |
8.5 Parametric Study | p. 219 |
8.6 Summary and Recommendations | p. 223 |
9 Buckling and Collapse Under Combined Bending and External Pressure | p. 225 |
9.1 Features of Inelastic Bending of Tubes Under External Pressure | p. 225 |
9.2 Combined Bending-External Pressure Experiments | p. 226 |
9.2.1 Test Facilities | p. 227 |
9.2.2 Experimental Results | p. 229 |
9.3 Formulation | p. 233 |
9.3.1 Principle of Virtual Work | p. 234 |
9.3.2 Bifurcation Buckling Under Combined Bending and External Pressure | p. 235 |
9.4 Predictions | p. 235 |
9.5 Factors That Affect Collapse | p. 238 |
9.5.1 Effect of Hardening Rule | p. 238 |
9.5.2 Bifurcation Buckling | p. 239 |
9.5.3 Effect of Residual Stresses | p. 240 |
9.5.4 Asymmetric Modes of Collapse | p. 243 |
9.5.5 Effect of Wall Thickness Variations | p. 248 |
9.5.6 Effect of Material Stress-Strain Response | p. 249 |
9.5.7 Effect of Anisotropic Yielding | p. 250 |
9.6 Collapse of UOE Pipe Bent Under External Pressure | p. 251 |
9.6.1 Experiments | p. 252 |
9.6.2 Analysis | p. 256 |
9.7 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 257 |
10 Inelastic Response Under Combined Bending and Tension | p. 260 |
10.1 Features of Tube Bending Under Tension | p. 261 |
10.2 Combined Bending-Tension Experiments | p. 261 |
10.2.1 Test Facility | p. 261 |
10.2.2 Experimental Procedure and Results | p. 264 |
10.3.2 Formulation | p. 270 |
10.4 Predictions | p. 274 |
10.4.1 Simulation of Experiments | p. 274 |
10.5 Parametric Study | p. 275 |
10.5.1 Effect of Loading Path | p. 275 |
10.5.2 Transverse Force on Axis of Pipe | p. 276 |
10.5.3 Effect of Curvature | p. 276 |
10.5.4 Effect of Yield Anisotropy and Residual Stresses | p. 277 |
10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 278 |
11 Plastic Buckling and Collapse Under Axial Compression | p. 280 |
11.1 Features of Axial Plastic Buckling | p. 281 |
11.2 Axial Buckling Experiments | p. 283 |
11.2.1 Experimental Setup | p. 283 |
11.2.2 Experimental Results | p. 285 |
11.3 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling | p. 293 |
11.3.1 Formulation | p. 293 |
11.3.2 Predictions | p. 296 |
11.4 Evolution of Wrinkling | p. 297 |
11.4.1 Kinematics | p. 297 |
11.4.2 Principle of Virtual Work | p. 299 |
11.4.3 Constitutive Equations | p. 299 |
11.4.4 Axisymmetric Solution | p. 299 |
11.4.5 Localization of Axisymmetric Wrinkling | p. 304 |
11.4.6 Bifurcation into Non-Axisymmetric Buckling Modes | p. 305 |
11.5 Non-Axisymmetric Buckling and Collapse | p. 308 |
11.5.1 Results | p. 309 |
11.6 Parametric Study | p. 314 |
11.7 Summary and Recommendations | p. 316 |
12 Combined Internal Pressure and Axial Compression | p. 319 |
12.1 Combined Axial Compression-Internal Pressure Experiments | p. 319 |
12.1.1 Experimental Set-Up | p. 320 |
12.1.2 Experimental Results | p. 321 |
12.2 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling | p. 327 |
12.2.1 Formulation | p. 327 |
12.2.2 Predictions | p. 328 |
12.3 Evolution of Wrinkling | p. 329 |
12.4 Parametric Study | p. 332 |
12.5 Summary and Recommendations | p. 334 |
13 Elements of Plasticity Theory | p. 336 |
13.1 Preliminaries | p. 336 |
13.1.1 Aspects of Uniaxial Behavior | p. 336 |
13.1.2 Discontinuous Yielding | p. 339 |
13.1.3 Multiaxial Behavior | p. 342 |
13.1.4 Yield Criteria | p. 342 |
13.2 Incremental Plasticity | p. 345 |
13.2.1 The Flow Rule | p. 345 |
13.2.2 J[subscript 2] Flow Theory with Isotropic Hardening | p. 346 |
13.3 The Deformation Theory of Plasticity | p. 349 |
13.3.1 The J[subscript 2] Deformation Theory | p. 349 |
13.3.2 Incremental J[subscript 2] Deformation Theory | p. 350 |
13.3.3 Anisotropic Deformation Theory | p. 351 |
13.4 Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening | p. 352 |
13.4.1 The Drucker-Palgen Model [13.19] | p. 353 |
13.4.2 The Dafalias-Popov Two-Surface Model | p. 355 |
13.4.3 The Tseng-Lee Two-Surface Model | p. 358 |
Appendix A Mechanical Testing | p. 361 |
A.1 Tensile and Compressive Material Stress-Strain Responses | p. 361 |
A.1.1 Tension Tests | p. 361 |
A.1.2 Compression Tests | p. 363 |
A.2 Toughness | p. 365 |
A.2.1 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test (CVN) | p. 365 |
A.2.2 Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT) | p. 368 |
A.3 Hardness Tests | p. 368 |
A.4 Residual Stresses | p. 369 |
Appendix B Plastic Anisotropy in Tubes | p. 371 |
B.1 Anisotropy Tests | p. 371 |
B.1.1 Lateral Pressure Test | p. 372 |
B.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure Test | p. 373 |
B.1.3 Torsion Test | p. 374 |
Appendix C The Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain Fit | p. 376 |
Appendix D Sanders' Circular Cylindrical Shell Equations | p. 378 |
Appendix E Stress-Strain Fitting for the Dafalias-Popov Model | p. 380 |
Appendix F Stress-Strain Fitting for the Tseng-Lee Model | p. 383 |
Appendix G Glossary and Nomenclature | p. 386 |
Appendix H Units and Conversions | p. 393 |
Index | p. 395 |