Experimental characterization of advanced composite materials

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Over much of the last three decades, the evolution of techniques for characterizing composite materials has struggled to keep up with the advances of composite materials themselves and their broadening areas of application. In recent years, however, much work has been done to consolidate test methods and better understand those being used. Finally, a consensus regarding the best available methods exists, and definitive recommendations can be made.

Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials provides a concise, authoritative treatment of the best available methods for determining the mechanical properties, thermal expansion coefficients, and fracture and strength data for composite materials. With emphasis firmly on practical matters, it presents processing techniques, specimen preparation, analyses of test methods, test procedures, and data reduction schemes. Five chapters that cover specific aspects of lamina testing are followed by discussions that extend these principles to laminate responses. The treatment concludes by exploring composite durability issues with discussions on defects and fracture mechanics.

With its concise format, detailed procedures, and expert assessments, this book is an outstanding resource for composites manufacturing and test engineers and lab technicians. It brings together all of the most appropriate and widely accepted test test methods developed to date.

1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Background	p. 2
1.2 Laminate Orientation Code	p. 3
1.2.1 Standard Laminate Code	p. 4
1.2.2 Basic Condensed Code	p. 5
1.2.3 Specific Condensed Code	p. 6
1.2.4 Summary	p. 6
1.3 Influences of Material Orthotropy on Experimental Characterization	p. 6
1.3.1 Material and Geometric Coordinates	p. 6
1.3.2 Stress-Strain Relations for Anisotropic Materials	p. 7
1.4 Typical Unidirectional Composite Properties	p. 8
References	p. 10
2 Analysis of Composite Materials	p. 11
2.1 Constitutive Relations	p. 11
2.1.1 Transformation of Stresses and Strains	p. 14
2.1.2 Hygrothermal Strains	p. 15
2.2 Micromechanics	p. 17
2.2.1 Stiffness Properties of Unidirectional Composites	p. 18
2.2.2 Expansion Coefficients	p. 19
2.3 Laminated Plate Theory	p. 20
2.4 St. Venant's Principle and End Effects in Composites	p. 23
2.5 Lamina Strength Analysis	p. 24
2.5.1 Maximum Stress Failure Criterion	p. 25
2.5.2 Maximum Strain Failure Criterion	p. 26
2.5.3 Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion	p. 26
2.6 Laminate Strength Analysis	p. 27
2.7 Fracture Mechanics Concepts	p. 29
2.8 Strength of Composite Laminates Containing Holes	p. 32
References	p. 34
3 Processing of Composite Laminates	p. 37
3.1 Processing of Thermoset Composites	p. 38
3.1.1 Autoclave Molding	p. 41
3.1.2 Resin Transfer Molding of Thermoset Composites	p. 44
3.1.2.1 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) Processing	p. 45
3.2 Autoclave Processing of Thermoplastic Composites	p. 48
3.3 Determination of Volume Fractions of Fibers, Resin, and Voids	p. 49
3.3.1 Chemical Matrix Digestion Method	p. 50
3.3.1.1 Procedure	p. 50
3.3.1.2 Calculation of Fiber Volume Fraction	p. 51
3.3.1.3 Determination of Void Content	p. 51
3.3.2 Photomicrographic Method	p. 52
3.3.2.1 Procedure	p. 52
3.3.2.2 Determination of Fiber Volume Fraction	p. 53
References	p. 55
4 Test Specimen Preparation, Strain, and Deformation Measurement Devices, and Testing Machines	p. 57
4.1 Cutting the Composite Laminate	p. 57
4.2 Tabbing Materials	p. 60
4.3 Tab Bonding	p. 61
4.4 Suggested Tab Bonding Procedure	p. 63
4.5 Hinge Attachment for Double-Cantilever Beam (DCB) and Mixed-Mode Bending (MMB) Specimens	p. 64
4.6 Specimen Conditioning	p. 65
4.7 Strain and Displacement Measurements	p. 66
4.8 Testing Machines	p. 69
References	p. 71
5 Lamina Tensile Response	p. 75
5.1 The Need for Lamina Testing	p. 75
5.2 Introduction to Tensile Testing	p. 75
5.3 Load Introduction	p. 76
5.4 Specimen Configurations and Test Procedures	p. 79
5.5 Data Reduction	p. 80
References	p. 83
6 Lamina Compressive Response	p. 85
6.1 Shear-Loading Test Methods	p. 87
6.2 End-Loading Test Methods	p. 88
6.3 CLC Test Methods	p. 91
6.4 Compression Test Procedures	p. 93
6.4.1 IITRI Test Procedure (ASTM D 3410)	p. 95
6.4.2 Modified ASTM D 695 Test Procedure (SACMA SRM-1)	p. 96
6.4.3 CLC Test Procedure (ASTM D 6641)	p. 96
6.5 Failure Modes	p. 97
6.6 General Data Reduction	p. 98
6.7 Indirect Determination of Unidirectional Lamina Strength from a Test of a Cross-Ply Laminate	p. 100
6.8 Summary of Compression Test Methods	p. 102
References	p. 103
7 Lamina Shear Response	p. 105
7.1 Iosipescu Shear Test Method (ASTM D 5379)	p. 106
7.2 Two-Rail Shear Test Method (ASTM D 4255)	p. 111
7.3 Three-Rail Shear Test Method (ASTM D 4255)	p. 114
7.4 [plus and minus 45 subscript ns] Tensile Shear Test Method (ASTM D 3518)	p. 115
7.5 Short Beam Shear Test Method (ASTM D 2344)	p. 117
7.6 Summary	p. 119
References	p. 119
8 Lamina Flexural Response	p. 121
8.1 Testing Configurations	p. 121
8.2 Three- Vs. Four-Point Flexure	p. 124
8.3 Specimen Preparation and Flexure Test Procedure	p. 126
8.4 Data Reduction	p. 127
References	p. 129
9 Lamina Off-Axis Tensile Response	p. 131
9.1 Deformation and Stress in an Unconstrained Specimen	p. 132
9.2 Influence of End Constraint	p. 134
9.3 Off-Axis Tensile Strength	p. 137
9.4 Test Procedure	p. 138
9.5 Data Reduction	p. 138
9.5.1 Elastic Properties	p. 138
9.5.2 Tensile Strength of Off-Axis Specimen	p. 141
References	p. 142
10 Lamina Thermoelastic Response	p. 143
10.1 Temperature Gage Sensing System	p. 145
10.2 Temperature Compensation	p. 145
10.3 Measurement of Thermal Expansion	p. 147
10.4 Data Reduction	p. 148
References	p. 149
11 Laminate Mechanical Response	p. 151
11.1 Data Reduction for Stiffness Properties	p. 152
11.1.1 Axial Tension or Compression	p. 152
11.1.2 Transverse Tension or Compression	p. 153
11.1.3 In-Plane Shear	p. 154
11.1.4 Flexure	p. 154
11.2 Laminate Strength Analysis	p. 156
11.3 Test Specimen Preparation	p. 157
11.4 Test Procedures	p. 157
11.4.1 Tension Test Procedures	p. 157
11.4.2 Compression Test Procedures	p. 158
11.4.3 Shear Test Procedures	p. 158
11.4.4 Flexural Test Procedures	p. 158
11.5 Data Reduction	p. 159
11.6 Example of a Typical Analysis: Axial Tensile Response of a Laminate	p. 159
References	p. 161
12 Laminate Thermoelastic Response	p. 163
12.1 Preparation of Test Specimens and Measurement of Thermal Expansion	p. 164
12.2 Data Reduction	p. 165
12.3 Analysis of Thermoelastic Response	p. 166
References	p. 167
13 Open-Hole Tensile and Compressive Strengths of Laminates	p. 169
13.1 Point and Average Stress Criteria	p. 170
13.1.1 Point Stress Criterion (PSC)	p. 171
13.1.2 Average Stress Criterion (ASC)	p. 172
13.1.3 Modification of PSC	p. 173
13.2 Test Specimen Preparation	p. 174
13.3 Tensile Test Procedure and Data Reduction	p. 175
13.4 Standardized Open-Hole Tension Test Method	p. 179
13.5 Standardized Open-Hole Compression Test Methods	p. 180
13.5.1 Boeing Open-Hole Compression Test Method	p. 180
13.5.2 Northrop Open-Hole Compression Test Method	p. 181
13.5.3 Comparison of the Boeing and Northrop Open-Hole Compression Test Methods	p. 182
13.5.4 Filled-Hole Tension and Compression Test Methods	p. 183
References	p. 183
14 Characterization of Delamination Failure	p. 185
14.1 Double-Cantilever Beam (DCB) Test	p. 186
14.1.1 DCB Specimen Preparation and Test Procedure	p. 187
14.1.2 DCB Data Reduction	p. 189
14.2 End-Notched Flexure (ENF) Test	p. 191
14.2.1 ENF Specimen Preparation and Test Procedure	p. 193
14.2.2 ENF Data Reduction	p. 194
14.3 The Four-Point Bend ENF (4ENF) Test	p. 196
14.3.1 4ENF Specimen Preparation	p. 197
14.3.2 4ENF Test Fixture	p. 197
14.3.3 4ENF Test Procedure	p. 198
14.3.4 4ENF Data Reduction	p. 199
14.4 Mixed-Mode Bending (MMB) Test	p. 201
14.4.1 MMB Test Procedure	p. 203
14.4.2 MMB Data Reduction	p. 203
14.5 Edge-Cracked Torsion (ECT) Test	p. 205
14.5.1 ECT Specimen Preparation	p. 207
14.5.2 ECT Test Fixture	p. 207
14.5.3 ECT Test Procedure	p. 208
14.5.4 ECT Data Reduction	p. 209
References	p. 210
Appendix A Compliance and Stiffness Transformations and Matrix Operations	p. 213
Appendix B Preparation of Test Specimens and Panels	p. 215
Appendix C Sample Laboratory Report	p. 227
Lamina Tensile Response	p. 227
Procedure	p. 227
Specimen Dimensions	p. 228
Stress-Strain Data	p. 228
Test Results	p. 229
Reduced Data	p. 229
Uncertainty Analysis	p. 232
Micromechanics Predictions	p. 233
References	p. 234
Appendix D Unit Conversions	p. 235
Index	p. 237

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