Diesel engine transient operation : principles of operation and simulation analysis

Traditionally, the study of internal combustion engines operation has focused on the steady-state performance. However, the daily driving schedule of automotive and truck engines is inherently related to unsteady conditions. In fact, only a very small portion of a vehicle's operating pattern is true steady-state, e. g. , when cruising on a motorway. Moreover, the most critical conditions encountered by industrial or marine engines are met during transients too. Unfortunately, the transient operation of turbocharged diesel engines has been associated with slow acceleration rate, hence poor driveability, and overshoot in particulate, gaseous and noise emissions. Despite the relatively large number of published papers, this very important subject has been treated in the past scarcely and only segmentally as regards reference books. Merely two chapters, one in the book Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine by N. Watson and M. S. Janota (McMillan Press, 1982) and another one written by D. E. Winterbone in the book The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines, Vol. II edited by J. H. Horlock and D. E. Winterbone (Clarendon Press, 1986) are dedicated to transient operation. Both books, now out of print, were published a long time ago. Then, it seems reasonable to try to expand on these pioneering works, taking into account the recent technological advances and particularly the global concern about environmental pollution, which has intensified the research on transient (diesel) engine operation, typically through the Transient Cycles certification of new vehicles.

Author Notes

Professor Constantine D. Rakopoulos is Head of the Thermal Engineering Department and Director of the I.C. Engines Laboratory at the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Greece. He graduated with a Dipl.Ing. from the NTUA, but obtained his Ph.D. from the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London, UK. Over the last 25 years he has been responsible for the development of engines research at the NTUA and has over 130 refereed papers in international journals and conferences. Professor Rakopoulos has guest-edited special issues in international journals and co-organised international conferences, including ECOS 2006.

Dr. Evangelos G. Giakoumis gained his Dr.Ing. from the School of Mechanical Engineering at the NTUA, before working as Area Manager at the After-Sales Department of the Peugeot Automobiles Distributor in Greece. He has been recently elected Lecturer at the Thermal Engineering Department of the School of Mechanical Engineering of the NTUA. Dr. Giakoumis' research interests include diesel engine experimental and simulation analysis under transient conditions, and second-law analysis of internal combustion engines.

Notation	p. xv
1 Transient Operation Fundamentals	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Typical Transient Operation Cases	p. 7
1.2.1 Load Increase (Acceptance) Transient Event	p. 8
1.2.2 Speed Increase (Acceleration) Transient Event	p. 17
References	p. 22
2 Thermodynamic Aspects of Transient Operation	p. 23
2.1 Turbocharger Lag and Transient Torque Pattern	p. 24
2.2 Fuel Injection	p. 38
2.2.1 Mechanical Fuel Injection	p. 38
2.2.2 Fuel Limiter	p. 43
2.3 In-cylinder Processes	p. 47
2.3.1 Heat Transfer	p. 47
2.3.2 Combustion	p. 51
2.4 Variable Geometry Turbine	p. 59
2.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation	p. 67
References	p. 72
3 Dynamics	p. 75
3.1 Engine Dynamics	p. 75
3.1.1 Kinematics and Forces of the Slider-crank Mechanism	p. 75
3.1.2 Crankshaft Torque Balance	p. 82
3.1.3 Mass Moments of Inertia	p. 84
3.2 Governor	p. 85
3.2.1 Governor Fundamentals	p. 85
3.2.2 Governor Equations	p. 90
3.3 Friction	p. 94
3.3.1 Friction Fundamentals	p. 94
3.3.2 Development of Friction Torque during Transients	p. 97
3.4 Crankshaft Torsional Deformation	p. 101
3.5 Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics	p. 105
3.5.1 Simplified Analysis	p. 106
3.5.2 Detailed Vehicle Dynamics Study	p. 110
References	p. 113
4 Experimental Measurements	p. 115
4.1 Introduction: Steady-state Test Bed Review	p. 115
4.2 Transient Experimental Test Bed	p. 117
4.2.1 Dynamometers	p. 120
4.2.2 Instantaneous Measurement of Exhaust Gas and Particulate Matter	p. 124
4.2.3 Heat Release Analysis of Transient Pressure Data	p. 135
References	p. 138
5 Emissions	p. 141
5.1 Particulate Matter and Smoke	p. 141
5.2 Nitrogen Oxides	p. 155
5.3 Hydrocarbons	p. 161
5.4 Carbon Monoxide	p. 164
5.5 Non-regulated Emissions and Odor	p. 165
5.6 Biodiesel	p. 168
5.7 Combustion Noise	p. 173
References	p. 178
6 Methods of Improving Transient Response	p. 181
6.1 Introduction	p. 181
6.2 Type and Features of Applied Load, and the Effect of Various Dynamic and Thermodynamic Parameters	p. 184
6.3 Air-injection	p. 189
6.4 Turbocharger Configuration	p. 193
6.4.1 Turbocharger Mass Moment of Inertia	p. 194
6.4.2 Combined Supercharging	p. 199
6.4.3 Two-stage Turbocharging	p. 202
6.4.4 Variable Geometry Turbine	p. 206
6.4.5 Electrically Assisted Turbocharging	p. 209
6.4.6 Sequential Turbocharging	p. 215
6.5 Engine Configuration	p. 217
6.5.1 Fuel Injection Control	p. 218
6.5.2 Valve Configuration	p. 220
6.5.3 Manifolds Configuration	p. 223
6.5.4 Hybrid-electric Engine and Vehicle Operation	p. 225
References	p. 236
7 Special Cases of Transient Operation	p. 239
7.1 Cold Starting	p. 239
7.1.1 Introduction	p. 239
7.1.2 Combustion Instability	p. 241
7.1.3 Dynamics and Friction Development	p. 248
7.1.4 Exhaust Emissions	p. 250
7.2 Compressor Surge	p. 254
7.2.1 Surge Fundamentals	p. 254
7.2.2 Compressor Surge during Diesel Engine Transient Operation	p. 255
7.3 Low-heat Rejection Operation	p. 261
7.3.1 Load or Speed Increase Transients	p. 262
7.3.2 Short Term Temperature Oscillations	p. 266
References	p. 274
8 Second-law Analysis	p. 277
8.1 Introduction	p. 277
8.2 Basic Concepts of Availability	p. 278
8.2.1 Availability of a System	p. 278
8.2.2 Dead State	p. 279
8.2.3 General Availability Balance Equation	p. 280
8.2.4 Fuel Availability	p. 281
8.3 Application of Exergy Balance to the Diesel Engine	p. 282
8.3.1 Engine Cylinder Exergy Balance	p. 282
8.3.2 In-cylinder Irreversibilities	p. 284
8.3.3 Exergy Balance of the Engine Sub-systems	p. 286
8.3.4 Second law or Exergy or Exergetic Efficiency	p. 288
8.4 Exergy Balance Application to Steady-state Operation	p. 290
8.5 Exergy Balance Application to Transient Operation	p. 293
References	p. 303
9 Modeling	p. 305
9.1 Introduction	p. 305
9.2 Quasi-linear or Mean Value Approach	p. 309
9.2.1 Engine Output	p. 309
9.2.2 Exhaust Gas Temperature	p. 310
9.2.3 Engine Air-flow	p. 311
9.2.4 Transient Discrepancies	p. 312
9.3 Filling and Emptying Approach	p. 313
9.3.1 Thermodynamics Fundamentals	p. 314
9.3.2 In-cylinder Calculations	p. 318
9.4 Manifolds	p. 334
9.5 Multi-cylinder Engine Transient Operation	p. 336
9.6 Turbocharger	p. 337
9.7 Friction	p. 342
9.7.1 Mean fmep Method	p. 342
9.7.2 Rezeka-Henein Model	p. 343
9.7.3 Account for Transient Discrepancies	p. 346
9.8 Fuel Injection	p. 346
9.9 Mechanical Governor	p. 348
9.10 Crankshaft Torque Balance	p. 349
9.11 Exhaust Emissions	p. 351
9.11.1 Global Approximations	p. 351
9.11.2 Nitric Oxide Formation Model	p. 352
9.11.3 Soot Formation Model	p. 352
9.12 Solution of Equations	p. 353
9.13 Sensitivity Analysis	p. 356
References	p. 357
Appendix A Exhaust Emission Regulations and Transient Cycles	p. 361
A.1 Introduction	p. 361
A.2 European Union (EU)	p. 362
A.2.1 Emission Standards	p. 362
A.2.2 Transient Cycles	p. 365
A.3 United States of America	p. 368
A.3.1 Emission Standards	p. 368
A.3.2 Transient Cycles	p. 371
A.4 Japan	p. 375
A.4.1 Emission Standards	p. 375
A.4.2 Transient Cycles	p. 377
A.5 Overall: Comparative Data	p. 379
A.6 Worldwide Heavy-duty Transient Cycle	p. 381
References	p. 382
Appendix B Fundamentals of Control Theory	p. 383
Index	p. 387

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