Pulse chemistry and technology

Like cereal, pulse processing is one of the oldest and most important of all food processing, which encompasses a diverse range of products. Pulses are widely grown throughout the world and their dietary and economic importance is globally appreciated and well recognized. Although cereal processing has several dedicated text books, no dedicated text on pulse processing is currently available for food science and technology graduates. This book aims to address this oversight, starting with a chapter highlighting the importance of pulses, their production and consumption trends. The coverage in subsequent chapters provides details on the physical and chemical characteristics of pulses, starches, proteins and minor constituents in them and then how they are processed and used. Cooking quality, analysis and the value of the food products will all be examined with the final chapter reviewing the regulatory and legislative requirements for pulses. This book will serve as a comprehensive text book for undergraduate and postgraduate students, educators, industry personnel involved with grain processing and to some extent researchers providing an up-to-date insight into pulse science, processing and technology.

Author Notes

Brijesh Tiwari is a Lecturer of Food Engineering in the Department of Food and Consumer Technology at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. Prior to joining this University, he was a Lecturer in Biosystems Engineering at University College Dublin in Ireland where he also obtained his PhD. He received his MSc in Food Technology from CFTRI in India. After a brief period working as a production manager in the Soymilk processing industry, he moved to The Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology as a Research Scientist where for two years he was actively involved in developing and teaching across the portfolio in grain processing for the food industry. He was also responsible for numerous consultancy assignments, technology transfer projects and the management of a number of industry focused research projects. His main research accomplishments are in the areas of novel food processing and preservation technologies, grain processing and mathematical modelling of food processes. To date he has published over fifty peer review journal articles, twenty book chapters and presented over thirty conference papers at key international research conferences. He has also co-edited four books and is a Series Editor for IFST Food Science & Technology. Narpinder Singh is a Professor of Food Technology in the Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar, India and also holds the position of Dean in the Faculty of Applied Sciences. He has been teaching and working in research for about 22 years and he is a Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy and a Fellow of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences. During the course of his work, he has managed research projects funded by various agencies, guided the research of several PhD students and worked as Visiting Scientist at Institute of Food Research, Norwich, UK and Visiting Professor at Osaka City University, Japan, Kansas State University, USA and University of East Anglia, UK. He has published 155 research papers, has six book chapters to his credit and has presented his work at many key international research conferences.

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Pulses	p. 1
1.2 Trends in Pulse Production and Consumption	p. 2
1.2.1 Pulse Production	p. 2
1.2.2 Consumption of Pulses	p. 7
1.2.3 Trade in Pulses	p. 8
1.3 Current Status of Pulse Processing	p. 9
1.4 Conclusions and Future Trends	p. 10
References	p. 10
Chapter 2 Pulse Grain Structure
2.1 Introduction	p. 11
2.2 Grain Morphology	p. 12
2.3 Anatomical Parts of Grain	p. 12
2.3.1 Hilum	p. 16
2.3.2 Micropyle	p. 16
2.3.3 Raphe	p. 17
2.3.4 Embryonic Axis	p. 17
2.3.5 Germ	p. 17
2.3.6 Seed Coat	p. 18
2.3.7 Cotyledon	p. 23
2.4 Chemical Constituents of Seed Coat and Cotyledons	p. 26
2.5 Constituents of Cell Walls	p. 27
2.5.1 Lignins and Cellulose	p. 27
2.5.2 Pectic Substances	p. 28
2.6 Grain Characteristics and Water Absorption	p. 30
References	p. 31
Chapter 3 Major Constituents of Pulses
3.1 Introduction	p. 34
3.2 Proximate Composition	p. 34
3.2.1 Carbohydrates	p. 35
3.2.2 Protein	p. 43
3.2.3 Crude Fat	p. 47
References	p. 49
Chapter 4 Minor Constituents of Pulses
4.1 Introduction	p. 52
4.2 Minerals	p. 52
4.3 Vitamins	p. 54
4.4 Minor Carbohydrates	p. 56
4.4.1 Monosaccharide	p. 56
4.4.2 Disaccharides	p. 56
4.4.3 Oligosaccharides	p. 56
4.5 Bioactive Constituents	p. 60
4.5.1 Phytic Acid	p. 63
4.5.2 Flavonoids	p. 64
4.5.3 Tannins	p. 64
4.5.4 Saponins	p. 66
4.5.5 Phytosterols	p. 69
References	p. 69
Chapter 5 Pulse Proteins
5.1 Introduction	p. 73
5.2 Classification of Pulse Proteins	p. 74
5.3 Digestibility of Protein	p. 77
References	p. 82
Chapter 6 Protein Isolates and Concentrates
6.1 Introduction	p. 85
6.2 Protein Isolates	p. 85
6.3 Methods for Protein Isolates	p. 86
6.3.1 Air Classification	p. 86
6.3.2 Water Extraction	p. 87
6.3.3 Salt Extraction	p. 87
6.3.4 Alkaline Extraction	p. 87
6.3.5 Acid Extraction	p. 89
6.3.6 Ultrafiltration	p. 90
6.4 Protein Concentrates	p. 91
6.5 Methods for Protein Concentrates	p. 92
6.5.1 Aqueous Alcohol Process	p. 92
6.5.2 Acid Wash Process	p. 93
6.5.3 Hot Water Extraction Process	p. 93
6.5.4 Enzyme Liquefaction Process	p. 93
6.6 Functional Properties	p. 94
6.6.1 Protein Solubility	p. 95
6.6.2 Protein Gelation	p. 97
6.6.3 Zeta Potential and Surface Hydrophobicity	p. 98
6.6.4 Water Absorption Capacity	p. 98
6.6.5 Oil Absorption Capacity	p. 99
6.6.6 Emusifying Properties	p. 99
6.6.7 Foaming Properties	p. 100
6.6.8 Thermal Properties	p. 101
6.6.9 Dynamic Rheology	p. 102
References	p. 104
Chapter 7 Pulse Starch
7.1 Introduction	p. 107
7.2 Starch Isolation Methods	p. 108
7.3 Starch Composition	p. 112
7.4 Starch Structure	p. 116
7.5 Starch Granule Size	p. 118
7.6 Starch Properties	p. 120
7.6.1 Pasting Properties	p. 120
7.6.2 Thermal Properties	p. 122
7.7 Retrogradation	p. 126
7.8 Starch Digestibility	p. 127
References	p. 129
Chapter 8 Properties of Pulses
8.1 Introduction	p. 134
8.2 Importance of Grain Properties	p. 135
8.3 Variations in Grain Properties	p. 136
8.4 Physical Properties of Grain	p. 138
8.4.1 Thousand Grain Weight	p. 138
8.4.2 Grain Dimensions	p. 139
8.4.3 Grain Density	p. 142
8.4.4 Angle of Repose	p. 145
8.4.5 Coefficient of Friction	p. 146
8.4.6 Coefficient of Restitution	p. 148
8.4.7 Shrinkage	p. 149
8.5 Aerodynamic Properties	p. 149
8.6 Mechanical Properties	p. 150
8.7 Thermal Properties	p. 153
8.7.1 Specific Heat Capacity	p. 154
8.7.2 Thermal Conductivity	p. 156
8.7.3 Thermal Diffusivity	p. 157
References	p. 158
Chapter 9 Post-Harvest Handling
9.1 Introduction	p. 161
9.2 Post-Harvest Handling Techniques	p. 162
9.3 Post-Harvest Losses	p. 164
9.3.1 Types of Losses	p. 165
9.4 Post-Harvest Technology	p. 167
9.4.1 Harvesting	p. 167
9.4.2 Threshing	p. 175
9.4.3 Drying	p. 176
9.4.4 Storage	p. 176
9.4.5 Processing	p. 177
9.4.6 Transportation	p. 177
9.5 Importance of Post-Harvest Technologies	p. 178
9.6 Strategies for Reduction of Post-Harvest Losses	p. 179
References	p. 179
Chapter 10 Drying of Pulses
10.1 Introduction	p. 181
10.2 Drying Basics	p. 181
10.2.1 Equilibrium Relative Humidity	p. 182
10.2.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content	p. 184
10.2.3 Pulse Grain Drying Curve	p. 186
10.2.4 Drying Kinetics	p. 188
10.3 Pulse Grain Drying Techniques	p. 189
10.3.1 Field Drying	p. 192
10.3.2 Sun Drying	p. 192
10.3.3 Convective Drying	p. 194
10.3.4 Thin-Layer and Deep-Bed Drying	p. 195
10.4 Drying Process of Grains	p. 195
10.5 Mechanism of Grain Drying	p. 196
References	p. 197
Chapter 11 Storage of Pulses
11.1 Introduction	p. 199
11.2 Importance of Storage	p. 199
11.3 Factors Affecting Storage Losses	p. 200
11.4 Safe Storage of Pulses	p. 202
11.5 Storage Structures	p. 204
11.5.1 Hermetic Storage	p. 206
11.5.2 On-Farm Storage	p. 207
11.6 Storage Facilities	p. 210
11.6.1 Bag Storage	p. 210
11.6.2 Triple Bagging System	p. 211
11.7 Commercial Storage of Grains in Silos	p. 212
11.8 Moisture and Air Movement During Storage	p. 213
11.8.1 Moisture Migration In Storage Structures	p. 213
11.8.2 Aeration in Storage Structures	p. 215
11.9 Storage Pests	p. 216
11.9.1 Detection of Storage Pest	p. 217
11.9.2 Pest Control Measures	p. 219
11.10 Effect of Storage on Quality and Nutritional Properties	p. 220
References	p. 221
Chapter 12 Processing of Pulses
12.1 Introduction	p. 224
12.2 Types of Processing	p. 225
12.3 Primary Processing of Pulses	p. 225
12.3.1 Pulse Dehulling	p. 225
12.3.2 Cleaning and Grading of Pulses	p. 227
12.3.3 Pre-Milling Treatment	p. 232
12.3.4 Dehulling	p. 240
12.3.5 Splitting of Pulses	p. 241
12.3.6 Separation and Grading	p. 243
12.3.7 Polishing	p. 244
12.4 Factors Affecting Dehulling of Pulses	p. 244
12.4.1 Raw Material Characteristics	p. 246
12.4.2 Size and Shape of Grains	p. 246
12.4.3 Hull Characteristics	p. 246
12.4.4 Adhesion Between Husk and Cotyledons	p. 247
12.5 Dehulling Calculations	p. 247
12.6 Effect of Dehulling on Quality of Pulses	p. 250
12.6.1 Nutritional Quality	p. 250
12.6.2 Cooking Quality	p. 251
References	p. 252
Chapter 13 Pulse Products and Utilisation
13.1 Introduction	p. 254
13.2 Cooking of Pulses	p. 255
13.3 Quick-Cook Dehydrated Pulses	p. 256
13.4 Canned Pulses (Baked Beans)	p. 257
13.5 Germinated Pulses	p. 258
13.6 Pulse Pastes	p. 259
13.7 Roasted and Puffed Pulses	p. 259
13.8 Snack Foods	p. 261
13.9 Noodlesand Pasta	p. 261
13.10 Extruded Snack Products	p. 262
13.10.1 Extrusion-Cooking Parameters	p. 265
13.11 Pulses as Ingredients in other Foods	p. 269
13.11.1 Weaning Foods	p. 269
13.11.2 Breads and Cookies	p. 269
13.11.3 Meat Products	p. 270
13.12 Traditional Pulse-Based Foods	p. 270
13.12.1 Papad	p. 270
13.12.2 Wadi	p. 270
13.12.3 Pakora	p. 271
13.12.4 Boondi	p. 271
13.12.5 Bhujia	p. 271
13.13 Traditional Indian Fermented Pulse Foods	p. 272
13.13.1 Idli and Vada	p. 272
13.13.2 Dosa (Indian Rice Pancake)	p. 273
13.13.3 Dhokla	p. 274
13.14 Utilisation of By-Products	p. 275
References	p. 276
Chapter 14 Pulse Grain Quality Criteria
14.1 Introduction	p. 280
14.2 Physical Characteristics that Determine Pulse Quality	p. 281
14.3 Hydration Characteristics that Determine Pulse Quality	p. 283
14.4 Chemical Characteristics that Determine Pulse Quality	p. 285
14.4.1 Moisture Content	p. 285
14.4.2 Protein Content	p. 286
14.4.3 Lipid Content	p. 286
14.4.4 Asha Content	p. 287
14.5 Cooking Characteristics that Determine Pulse Quality	p. 287
14.5.1 Cooking Time	p. 287
14.5.2 Canning Quality	p. 289
14.5.3 Textural Properties	p. 290
14.5.4 Gruel Solids Loss	p. 292
14.5.5 Hard to Cook Defect	p. 292
14.6 Functional Characteristics of Flours that Determine Pulse Quality	p. 293
14.6.1 Pasting Properties	p. 293
14.6.2 Protein Solubility	p. 294
14.6.3 Fat Absorption Capacity	p. 296
14.6.4 Water-Holding Capacity	p. 296
14.6.5 Gelling Ability	p. 297
14.6.6 Emulisifying Properties	p. 297
References	p. 298
Subject Index	p. 301

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