Radar reflectivity of land and sea

This state-of-the-art edition of a radar classic brings the reader up-to-date on new developments in clutter measurement and modelling, and features a wealth of new information. Authored by a recognized expert in the field, the book covers everything from basic concepts of radar reflectivity to space-time clutter amplitude and bistatic clutter.

Preface	p. xv
References	p. xviii
Acknowledgments	p. xxi
1 Remote Sensing by Radar	p. 1
1.1 State of the Art	p. 1
1.1.1 Overview	p. 1
1.1.2 Radar Capabilities at the End of World War II	p. 6
1.1.3 Strip Maps and Side-Looking Radar	p. 13
1.1.4 Spaceborne Radar	p. 16
1.2 Surface Effects and Emerging Techniques	p. 21
1.2.1 Effects of Surface Characteristics	p. 21
1.2.2 Modern Techniques for Sensing Surface Characteristics	p. 32
References	p. 39
2 Basic Concepts and Definitions	p. 43
2.1 Radar Reflectivity	p. 43
2.1.1 The Radar Equation for Free Space	p. 44
2.1.2 Radar Cross Section of Targets	p. 47
2.1.3 Normalized Radar Cross Section	p. 48
2.1.4 Coherence and Incoherence of a Scattered Field	p. 50
2.1.5 Rayleigh Roughness Criterion, Specular Reflection, and Scattering	p. 51
2.1.6 Far Field of Radar Targets	p. 56
2.1.7 Effects of Radar Frequency Changes	p. 57
2.1.8 Echo Fluctuations	p. 58
2.2 The Earth and Its Effects on Radar	p. 59
2.2.1 Effects of the Earth's Curvature and Refraction	p. 59
2.2.2 The Effect of Interference on a Target	p. 63
2.2.3 Nature of the Sea Surface and Wind Speed Statistics	p. 66
2.2.4 Propagation over the Horizon	p. 70
2.2.5 Attenuation and Scattering by the Atmosphere	p. 73
References	p. 75
3 Polarization, Depolarization, and Theories of Scattering	p. 79
3.1 Polarization and Depolarization	p. 79
3.1.1 Polarization Scattering Matrix	p. 79
3.1.2 Relationships Between Linear and Circular Polarizations	p. 82
3.1.3 A Randomly Oriented Dipole	p. 85
3.1.4 A Dihedral Reflector	p. 87
3.1.5 Depolarization Caused by an Ensemble of Randomly Oriented Dipoles	p. 88
3.2 Theories for Radar Cross Section of Rough Surfaces	p. 91
3.2.1 Simple Models Including the Constant Gamma Model	p. 91
3.2.2 Classical Interference Theory	p. 96
3.2.3 The Tangent Plane Approximation	p. 97
3.2.4 Very Rough Surfaces	p. 97
3.2.5 The Facet Model	p. 98
3.2.6 The Slightly Rough Planar Surface	p. 98
3.2.7 Ripples on Water	p. 100
3.2.8 Vegetation Model	p. 101
3.2.9 Composite Surfaces	p. 103
3.2.10 Doppler Spectra of Sea Echo	p. 104
References	p. 106
4 Effects of the Earth's Surface	p. 111
4.1 Fundamental Concepts	p. 111
4.1.1 Effects of the Earth's Curvature and Refraction	p. 112
4.1.2 Reflections from a Rough, Spherical Earth	p. 115
4.1.3 Reflection Coefficient for a Flat, Smooth Earth	p. 118
4.1.4 Effect of a Flat, Smooth Earth on Target Echo	p. 125
4.2 Echo from Targets That Are Above a Flat, Smooth Earth	p. 129
4.2.1 Range and Depression Angle Dependencies for a Small Object Above a Smooth Earth	p. 129
4.2.2 Vertically Extensive Objects Above a Smooth Earth	p. 132
4.2.3 Propagation Factors for Circular, Horizontal, and Vertical Polarizations Above a Smooth Earth	p. 135
4.2.4 Propagation Factors for a Cloud of Scatterers Above a Smooth Earth	p. 138
4.3 Effects of Surface Roughness on Forward-Scattered Fields	p. 140
4.3.1 Reflection Coefficient for Rough Surfaces	p. 140
4.3.2 Shadowing	p. 145
4.3.3 Depolarization	p. 146
4.4 Echo from Targets That Are Above a Physically Rough Earth	p. 147
4.4.1 Variation of Echo Power with Range	p. 148
4.4.2 Range at Which Idealized R[superscript -4] and R[superscript -8] Curves Intersect	p. 150
4.4.3 Relative Cross Sections for Circular Polarizations	p. 150
4.4.4 A Cloud of Scatterers	p. 152
4.4.5 Effects of the Diffuse Component on Target Echo	p. 154
4.5 Multipath Effects on Echo from Land and Sea	p. 156
4.5.1 Effects of Multipath Interference	p. 157
4.5.2 Multipath Interference and Shadowing	p. 158
References	p. 159
5 Echo Fluctuations and Spectra	p. 163
5.1 Introduction	p. 163
5.1.1 Spectra and Autocorrelation Functions	p. 163
5.1.2 Amplitude Statistics	p. 165
5.2 Ground Echo Fluctuations	p. 172
5.2.1 Nature of Ground Echoes	p. 172
5.2.2 Temporal Amplitude Distributions for Terrain	p. 175
5.2.3 Spatial Amplitude Statistics	p. 182
5.2.4 Noncoherent Spectra and Autocorrelation Functions of Land	p. 192
5.2.5 Coherent Land Doppler Spectra	p. 203
5.2.6 Lincoln Laboratory Spectral Model	p. 211
5.2.7 Power in Fast and Slow Land Spectra	p. 213
5.2.8 Bragg Spectra from Inland Water	p. 214
5.2.9 Concluding Remarks on Ground Echo Fluctuations	p. 216
5.3 Visual Observations of Sea Echo	p. 219
5.3.1 Characteristics Revealed by an A-Scope Display	p. 219
5.3.2 Results from Fixed Range Sampling	p. 221
5.3.3 Subjective Radar/Optical Comparisons and Anomalies	p. 224
5.3.4 Observations of Bishop and of Lewis and Olin	p. 225
5.4 Sea Echo Statistics and Spectra	p. 228
5.4.1 Amplitude Distributions	p. 229
5.4.2 Spectra Observed with Noncoherent Radar	p. 241
5.4.3 Autocorrelation Functions	p. 242
5.4.4 Noncoherent Spectra and Relationships with Sea Surface Mechanisms	p. 248
5.4.5 Relative Power in Fast and Slow Fluctuations	p. 250
5.4.6 Phase Coherent Doppler Spectra	p. 254
5.4.7 Super Events	p. 267
5.4.8 Sea Spikes	p. 268
5.4.9 Concluding Remarks on Sea Echo Fluctuations and Spectra	p. 274
5.5 Space-Time Clutter Amplitude Statistics	p. 277
5.5.1 Compound Distributions	p. 277
5.5.2 The K-Distribution	p. 279
5.5.3 Rayleigh Modulated by Weibull Statistics	p. 281
References	p. 283
6 Average and Median Cross Sections	p. 291
6.1 Introduction	p. 291
6.1.1 General Characteristics of [sigma degree]	p. 292
6.1.2 Differences Between Average and Median Values	p. 294
6.1.3 Smooth Surfaces and Small Grazing Angles	p. 295
6.1.4 Classical Interference Effect	p. 299
6.1.5 Problems Associated with Measuring [sigma degree]	p. 301
6.2 Radar Cross Section for Land	p. 303
6.2.1 Nature of [sigma degree] for Land	p. 303
6.2.2 Sample [sigma degree] Land Measurements	p. 303
6.2.3 Terrain Within Near Vertical and Plateau Regions	p. 332
6.2.4 Ulaby and Dobson Tables for Terrain	p. 336
6.2.5 Terrain Within Plateau and Low Grazing Angle Regions	p. 340
6.2.6 Terrain at Extremely Low Grazing Angles	p. 345
6.2.7 Concluding Remarks on Average Land Echo	p. 350
6.3 Radar Cross Section for the Sea	p. 352
6.3.1 Nature of [sigma degree] for the Sea	p. 352
6.3.2 Range Dependence at Small Grazing Angles	p. 354
6.3.3 Dependence on Grazing Angle	p. 358
6.3.4 Grazing Angle Dependence at Low Frequencies	p. 366
6.3.5 Nathanson Sea Clutter Tables	p. 372
6.3.6 Extremely Low Grazing Angles	p. 374
6.3.7 Dependence of [sigma degree] on Polarization	p. 382
6.3.8 Dependence of [sigma degree] on the Wind and Sea	p. 384
6.3.9 GIT Sea Clutter Models	p. 399
6.3.10 Wavelength Dependence for the Sea	p. 409
6.3.11 A Two-Scatterer Sea Clutter Model	p. 420
6.3.12 Oil Slicks and Rain on Water	p. 424
6.3.13 Concluding Remarks on Average Sea Echo	p. 425
References	p. 427
7 Interdependence of Polarization Characteristics	p. 435
7.1 Introduction	p. 435
7.1.1 General Observations	p. 435
7.1.2 Coherency, Statistical Independence, and Correlation	p. 437
7.1.3 A Simplified Polarization Model for Rough Terrain	p. 441
7.1.4 Use of the Polarization Model for the Moon	p. 444
7.1.5 Polarization Model with Different Propagation Factors	p. 450
7.2 Echo from Land, Principally Trees	p. 451
7.2.1 Amplitude Fluctuations	p. 452
7.2.2 Interdependence of Amplitude and Phase of Orthogonally Polarized Echoes	p. 453
7.2.3 Average and Median Value Data, and Depression Angle Dependence	p. 455
7.2.4 Relative Magnitude of Coherent and Incoherent Scattering from Trees	p. 459
7.3 Sea Echo	p. 463
7.3.1 Fluctuations of Orthogonally Polarized Components	p. 463
7.3.2 Averages and Medians for Linear Polarization	p. 468
7.3.3 Interdependence of Averages and Medians for Linear and Circular Polarizations	p. 471
7.3.4 Coherent and Incoherent Scattering from the Sea	p. 479
References	p. 480
8 Bistatic Land and Sea Clutter	p. 483
8.1 Bistatic RCS	p. 483
8.2 Effective Illuminated Area	p. 485
8.3 Depolarization and Reduction in RCS	p. 487
8.4 In-Plane ([phis] = 0 and 180[degree]) Clutter	p. 488
8.5 The Barton Model	p. 490
8.6 Ulaby et al. Indoor Measurements	p. 493
8.7 Out-of-Plane, Small Grazing Angle Data	p. 499
References	p. 502
Appendix Statistical Parameters	p. 505
A.1 Basics	p. 505
A.2 Probability Density Functions and Distributions	p. 507
A.2.1 Normal or Gaussian Distribution	p. 507
A.2.2 Rayleigh Distribution	p. 507
A.2.3 Ricean Distribution	p. 508
A.2.4 Lognormal Distribution	p. 509
A.2.5 Weibull Distribution	p. 510
A.2.6 Chi-Square, Gamma, and Weinstock Distributions	p. 511
A.3 Standard Deviation of 10 log [sigma] When [sigma] Is Rayleigh Power Distributed	p. 511
A.4 Relationship Between 10 log([characters not reproducible]igma]/[sigma subscript m]) and Its Variance When [sigma] Is Lognormal	p. 513
References	p. 514
About the Author	p. 515
Index	p. 517

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