Surveillance and reconnaissance imaging systems : modeling and performance prediction

An up-to-date, comprehensive review of surveillance and reconnaissance (S&R) imaging system modelling and performance prediction. This resource helps the reader predict the information potential of new surveillance system designs, compare and select from alternative measures of information extraction, relate the performance of tactical acquisition sensors and surveillance sensors, and understand the relative importance of each element of the image chain on S&R system performance. It provides system descriptions and characteristics, S&R modelling history, and performance modelling details.

Author Notes

Jon C. Leachtenauer holds an A.B. and M.S. in Geology from Syracuse University.

He formed his own consulting agency, J/M Leachtenauer Associates, Inc, and is currently a consultant to the National Imagery and Mapping Agency. He is the author of over 150 technical reports, as well as numerous published papers covering all aspects of the image exploitation process.

050

Preface	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Modeling Applications	p. 2
1.2 Conceptual SandR Model	p. 3
1.3 Performance Prediction Approaches	p. 8
1.3.1 Physical Image Quality	p. 8
1.3.2 Physical Models and Simulations	p. 9
1.3.3 Information Theory-Based Models	p. 10
1.3.4 Difference Models and Metrics	p. 11
1.4 Summary	p. 12
References	p. 12
2 Surveillance and Reconnaissance Imaging Systems	p. 13
2.1 Introduction	p. 13
2.2 Imaging with IR and EO Sensors	p. 16
2.2.1 Infrared Sensors	p. 16
2.2.2 Electro-Optical Sensors	p. 19
2.3 Image Formation	p. 20
2.3.1 Line Scanners	p. 20
2.3.2 Staring Array Sensors	p. 22
2.3.3 Television Sensors	p. 23
2.3.4 Analog versus Digital Signals	p. 24
2.4 Imaging System Parameters	p. 25
2.4.1 Sensitivity and Resolution	p. 25
2.4.2 Field of View	p. 26
2.4.3 Field of Regard	p. 27
2.4.4 Diffraction	p. 27
2.4.5 Detector Angular Subtense and Instantaneous Field of View	p. 29
2.4.6 Ground Sample Distance	p. 30
2.4.7 Point Spread Function	p. 32
2.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar	p. 33
2.6 Choice of Imaging Sensors	p. 37
2.7 Examples of Surveillance and Reconnaissance Sensors	p. 39
2.7.1 Predator	p. 39
2.7.2 Global Hawk	p. 41
2.7.3 Landsat 7	p. 42
2.7.4 RADARSAT	p. 45
2.7.5 IKONOS	p. 47
2.7.6 Russian Satellite Imagery	p. 47
2.7.7 Other Satellite Systems	p. 49
References	p. 50
3 Historical Review	p. 53
3.1 Pre-1950	p. 53
3.2 1950-1970	p. 57
3.3 1970 to Present	p. 64
3.4 Summary	p. 68
References	p. 69
4 Linear Shift Invariant Imaging Systems	p. 75
4.1 Linearity and Shift Invariance	p. 75
4.2 The Impulse Function	p. 77
4.3 The Fourier Series and Fourier Transform	p. 79
4.3.1 Fourier Series	p. 79
4.3.2 Fourier Transform	p. 80
4.3.3 Fourier Transform Properties	p. 81
4.3.4 Fourier Transform Pairs	p. 82
4.4 LSI Imaging System	p. 83
4.5 Imaging in the Space and Frequency Domains	p. 85
4.6 Imaging with Components	p. 85
4.6.1 Optics	p. 89
4.6.2 Detectors	p. 90
4.6.3 Electronics	p. 94
4.6.4 Displays	p. 99
4.6.5 Human Vision	p. 101
4.7 Simplifying LSI Imager Analysis to One Dimension	p. 103
4.8 Sampled Imaging Systems	p. 108
4.9 SAR Impulse Response and Transfer Function	p. 110
4.10 Summary	p. 111
References	p. 111
5 Information Extraction Measures	p. 115
5.1 Direct Performance Measures	p. 116
5.1.1 Probability of Task Performance	p. 116
5.1.2 Completeness and Accuracy	p. 119
5.1.3 Statistical Properties of Direct Measures	p. 120
5.2 Theory of Signal Detection	p. 124
5.3 Range/Time Measures	p. 128
5.4 Performance Estimate Measures	p. 129
5.4.1 National Imagery Interpretability Rating Scale	p. 132
5.4.2 Task Satisfaction Confidence Ratings	p. 145
5.4.3 Relative Quality Scales	p. 148
5.5 Information and Difference Metrics	p. 152
5.6 Summary	p. 156
References	p. 156
6 Information Extraction Performance Predictors	p. 159
6.1 Scale, Resolution, and Sharpness	p. 160
6.1.1 Scale	p. 160
6.1.2 Photographic Resolution	p. 162
6.1.3 Video Resolution (Analog)	p. 167
6.1.4 Electro-optical Systems	p. 170
6.1.5 SAR Resolution	p. 174
6.2 Contrast and Noise	p. 177
6.2.1 Photographic Measures	p. 177
6.2.2 Electro-optical Measures	p. 181
6.2.3 SAR Measures	p. 182
6.3 Artifacts	p. 185
6.4 Summary Measures	p. 188
6.4.1 Regression Models	p. 188
6.4.2 MTF	p. 188
6.4.3 MTF Measures	p. 191
6.4.4 SNR Measures	p. 194
6.4.5 Physical Difference Metrics	p. 196
6.5 Summary	p. 197
References	p. 198
7 Target and Environmental Considerations	p. 203
7.1 Target Effects	p. 203
7.2 Deception and Denial	p. 216
7.3 Atmospheric Effects	p. 220
7.4 Summary	p. 222
References	p. 223
8 Image Processing Considerations	p. 225
8.1 Bandwidth Compression	p. 225
8.1.1 Single Image Monochrome Compression	p. 228
8.1.2 Multichannel Image Compression	p. 233
8.1.3 Motion Imagery Compression	p. 236
8.2 Enhancement Processing	p. 241
8.2.1 Spatial Filtering	p. 242
8.2.2 Pixel Intensity Transforms	p. 245
8.2.3 Image Fusion	p. 249
8.3 Summary	p. 250
References	p. 251
Selected Bibliography	p. 252
9 Display and Observer Considerations	p. 255
9.1 Displays	p. 255
9.1.1 Briggs Targets	p. 256
9.1.2 CRT Displays	p. 258
9.1.3 Flat Panel Displays	p. 271
9.1.4 Display Environment	p. 273
9.2 Observer Characteristics	p. 278
9.2.1 Observer Selection	p. 278
9.2.2 Observer Variability	p. 282
9.3 Observer Models	p. 284
9.4 Summary	p. 293
References	p. 294
10 Performance Prediction Models	p. 299
10.1 Parameter-Based Models	p. 300
10.1.1 General Image Quality Equation	p. 301
10.1.2 Target Acquisition Sensor Performance Modeling	p. 312
10.1.3 Physique	p. 326
10.1.4 Radar Threshold Quality Factor	p. 328
10.1.5 Other SAR Models	p. 329
10.2 Image-Based Models	p. 330
10.2.1 Image Quality Model	p. 331
10.2.2 Sarnoff JND Model	p. 334
10.2.3 Other Image-Based Models	p. 339
10.3 Summary	p. 344
References	p. 344
11 Sensor Performance Conversions	p. 349
11.1 Johnson Criteria and NIIRS	p. 351
11.2 Conversions with Models	p. 352
11.3 Comparing Sensor Performance Conversions	p. 356
11.4 Performance Conversion as a Function of Target Size	p. 360
11.5 Summary	p. 360
References	p. 362
12 Conclusions and Future Directions	p. 365
12.1 Spectral Domain	p. 366
12.2 Temporal Effects	p. 368
12.3 Search	p. 369
12.4 SAR	p. 371
12.5 Summary	p. 374
References	p. 376
List of Acronyms	p. 379
About the Authors	p. 385
Index	p. 387

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