Clinical radiotherapy physics

This book provides an in-depth introduction to radiotherapy physics. The emphasis in much of the work is on the clinical aspects of the field. Uniquely useful for both the physicist and non-physicist, Clinical Radiotherapy Physics gradually and sequentially develops each of its topics in clear, concise language. It includes important mathematical analyses, yet is written so that these sections can be skipped, if desired, without compromising understanding. The book is divided into seven parts covering basic physics (Parts I-II), equipment for radiotherapy (Part III), radiation dosimetry (Parts IV-V), radiation treatment planning (Part VI), and radiation safety and shielding (Part VII). For radiation oncologists, radiation therapists, and clinical physicists.

Part I Basic Physics and Radioactivity Decay
1 Scope of Clinical Radiotherapy Physics	p. 3
1.1 A Physicist in a Clinic?	p. 3
1.2 Physical Concepts and Radiotherapy	p. 3
1.3 Cooperation between Physicist and Physician	p. 4
1.4 Scope of this Book	p. 5
References	p. 6
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Matter	p. 7
2.1 Historical Origin of Atomic Physics	p. 7
2.2 Formation of Atoms and Elements	p. 8
2.3 Atomic Electron Configuration	p. 11
2.4 Definition of an Electron Volt (eV)	p. 15
2.5 Atomic Mass, Molecular Mass, and Atomic Mass Unit	p. 15
2.6 Avogadro's Number (N[subscript Av])	p. 16
2.7 Periodic Table of Elements	p. 17
2.8 Molecular Bonds	p. 17
2.9 Elementary Particles	p. 20
2.10 Outer Space and Particle Research	p. 24
References	p. 25
3 Propagation of Energy by Electromagnetic Waves	p. 26
3.1 Radio Waves, Heat Waves, and Light Waves	p. 26
3.2 Wave Propagation	p. 26
3.3 Photons, Quanta, and the Electromagnetic Spectrum	p. 28
3.4 Louis de Broglie's Matter Waves	p. 29
4 Nuclear Transitions and Radioactive Decay	p. 31
4.1 Discovery of Natural Radioactivity	p. 31
4.2 Nuclear Forces and Energy Levels	p. 32
4.3 Nuclear Decay Schemes	p. 33
4.4 Alpha Decay	p. 33
4.5 Beta Decay	p. 34
4.6 Internal Conversion (IC)	p. 38
4.7 Isomeric Transition	p. 40
4.8 Nuclear Fission	p. 40
4.9 Nuclear Fusion	p. 41
4.10 Induced Nuclear Transformations	p. 42
5 Radioactive Decay Calculations	p. 43
5.1 Introduction	p. 43
5.2 Decay of a Single Isotope	p. 43
5.3 Radioactive Decay Chains	p. 48
5.4 Neutron Activation	p. 52
Part II Interaction of Radiation with Matter
6 Collision and Radiation Loss in Charged-Particle Interactions	p. 59
6.1 Slowing Down of Charged Particles	p. 59
6.2 Collision Loss	p. 60
6.3 Radiative Loss	p. 63
References	p. 68
7 Photon Interactions	p. 69
7.1 Nature of the Interactions	p. 69
7.2 Attenuation Coefficient	p. 70
7.3 Coherent Thompson Scattering	p. 72
7.4 Photoelectric Absorption	p. 73
7.5 Incoherent Compton Scattering	p. 77
7.6 Negatron-Positron Pair Production	p. 82
7.7 Summing up the Local Energy Absorbed	p. 85
7.8 Components of [mu] at Different Energies	p. 85
7.9 Attenuation Coefficients for Mixtures and Compounds	p. 87
7.10 Broad- and Narrow-Beam Attenuation Geometries	p. 88
7.11 Photonuclear Reactions	p. 90
Part III Radiation Beam Therapy Equipment
8 Conventional X-Ray Machines	p. 95
8.1 Discovery of X-Rays	p. 95
8.2 Gas-Discharge X-Ray Tube	p. 96
8.3 Features of Modern X-Ray Tubes	p. 96
8.4 High-Voltage Supply and Rectification	p. 100
8.5 A Typical X-Ray Circuit	p. 104
8.6 X-Ray Spectra and Quality	p. 105
9 Equipment for Radioisotope Teletherapy	p. 107
9.1 Concept of Teletherapy	p. 107
9.2 Radioisotope Sources	p. 107
9.3 [superscript 60]Co Teletherapy Machines	p. 109
9.4 Miscellaneous Features and Accessories	p. 114
9.5 Closing Remarks	p. 117
10 Particle Accelerators	p. 118
10.1 Three Categories of Accelerators	p. 118
10.2 Direct-Voltage, Electrostatic Accelerators	p. 119
10.3 Linear Accelerators	p. 121
10.4 Betatron	p. 127
10.5 Cyclotron	p. 129
10.6 Microtron	p. 130
Part IV Radiation Quantities, Units, and Detectors
11 Quantification of Radiation Field: Radiation Units and Measurements	p. 135
11.1 Radiation Field	p. 135
11.2 Some Theoretical Concepts	p. 135
11.3 Dose and Kerma Profiles--An Interface Example	p. 140
11.4 Air Kerma (k[subscript air]) and Water Kerma (k[subscript water])	p. 142
11.5 Exposure	p. 142
11.6 Measurement of Exposure	p. 146
11.7 Use of Calibrated Ion Chamber in Therapy Beams	p. 150
11.8 Calorimetry and Protocols Based on Absorbed Dose to Water	p. 157
11.9 Air-Kerma Rate Constant for Radionuclide Sources	p. 159
11.10 Reference Air-Kerma Rate for Specifying Brachytherapy Source Strength	p. 162
References	p. 165
12 Instruments for Radiation Detection	p. 168
12.1 Introduction	p. 168
12.2 Ionization Detectors	p. 168
12.3 Photographic Film Detector	p. 173
12.4 Scintillation Detector	p. 176
12.5 Solid-State Electrical Conductivity Detectors	p. 177
12.6 Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDS)	p. 178
12.7 Chemical Dosimeters	p. 180
12.8 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dosimetry	p. 181
12.9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Dosimetry	p. 182
12.10 Radiochromic Film Dosimetry	p. 182
12.11 Concluding Remarks	p. 183
References	p. 183
Part V Dosimetry of Radiation Beams
13 Basic Ratios and Factors for the Dosimetry of External Beam	p. 189
13.1 Introduction	p. 189
13.2 Defining the Beam Geometry	p. 189
13.3 Quality of Beams	p. 191
13.4 Central-Axis Dose Profile	p. 192
13.5 Calculation of Dose in the Depth: General Approach	p. 193
13.6 Dose to Tissue in Air	p. 194
13.7 Inverse-Square Fall-Off	p. 195
13.8 Irradiation Parameters	p. 196
13.9 Tissue-Air Ratio (TAR)	p. 197
13.10 Peak Scatter Factor (PSF)	p. 198
13.11 Normalized PSF (NPSF)	p. 200
13.12 Percent Depth Dose (PDD)	p. 200
13.13 Tissue Maximum Ratio (TMR)	p. 205
13.14 Tissue-Phantom Ratio	p. 206
13.15 Dose Output Factors	p. 206
13.16 Methods of Deriving the Dose Rate D[subscript P] at Point P	p. 212
13.17 Calculation of Treatment Duration	p. 214
13.18 Equivalent Squares and Circles	p. 214
13.19 Relationship of TAR and TMR to PDD	p. 217
13.20 Converting PDD for One SSD to that for Another	p. 217
13.21 Concluding Remarks	p. 227
References	p. 229
14 Beam Dosimetry: Additional Corrections--Special Situations	p. 230
14.1 Introduction	p. 230
14.2 Scatter Considerations	p. 230
14.3 General Approach for Off-Central Axis Points	p. 238
14.4 Correction for Body Inhomogeneities	p. 240
14.5 Bone Attenuation and Absorption	p. 248
14.6 Beams of Non-Uniform Intensity	p. 251
14.7 Concluding Remarks	p. 252
References	p. 253
Part VI Radiation Treatment Planning
15 Treatment Dose Distribution Planning: Photon Beams	p. 259
15.1 Introduction	p. 259
15.2 Isodose Surfaces and Curves	p. 259
15.3 Single-Beam Isodose Curves	p. 260
15.4 Concept of Combining Beams	p. 264
15.5 Derivation of Dose Distribution	p. 265
15.6 Planning of Dose Distributions	p. 271
15.7 Principles of the Use of Wedge Filters	p. 273
15.8 Irradiations with Parallel Opposed Beams	p. 279
15.9 Other Common Techniques	p. 288
15.10 Treatment Planning: A Practical Case	p. 294
15.11 Use of CT Data	p. 306
15.12 Treatment of Adjacent Sites	p. 309
15.13 3D-CRT, SRT, IMRT	p. 315
15.14 Concluding Remarks	p. 318
References	p. 318
16 Physical Aspects of Electron Beam Therapy	p. 323
16.1 Electron Transport	p. 323
16.2 Electron Beam from Machine to Patient	p. 323
16.3 Electron Beam After Entering the Patient	p. 325
16.4 Electron Beam Depth Dose Date	p. 329
16.5 Planning a Simple Electron Beam Treatment	p. 330
16.6 Electron Beam Depth Dose and Field Size	p. 331
16.7 Electron Pencil Beam	p. 333
16.8 Oblique Incidence and Depth Dose	p. 333
16.9 Electron Beams: Some Practical Consideration	p. 335
16.10 Influence of Inhomogeneities	p. 342
16.11 Comparison of Kilovoltage X-Ray and Electron Beams	p. 345
16.12 Total-Skin Electron Treatment	p. 346
16.13 Intraoperative Electron Therapy	p. 347
16.14 Electron Arc Therapy	p. 348
16.15 Adjacent Electron Fields	p. 350
References	p. 352
17 Physics of the Use of Small Sealed Sources in Brachytherapy	p. 357
17.1 Brachytherapy	p. 357
17.2 Categories of Applications	p. 359
17.3 Source Strength of Brachytherapy Sources	p. 361
17.4 Source Strength and Time Product	p. 365
17.5 Dosimetry of a Point Source in Water	p. 366
17.6 Dosimetry of a Linear Source	p. 371
17.7 A Simple Line Source Treatment	p. 377
17.8 Forming Multiple Source Arrays	p. 379
17.9 Systems for Brachytherapy	p. 384
17.10 Manchester (Paterson and Parker) Distribution Rules	p. 394
17.11 Planning and Implementing a Practical Case	p. 399
17.12 Permanent Implants	p. 408
17.13 Intracavitary Irradiation	p. 409
References	p. 414
Part VII Radiation Safety
18 Radiation Safety Standards	p. 421
18.1 Introduction	p. 421
18.2 Harmful Effects of Radiation	p. 422
18.3 Evaluation of Dose for Radiation Protection	p. 423
18.4 Uncertainties in Radiation Risk Assessment	p. 430
18.5 Radiation Safety Philosophy	p. 434
18.6 Safety of Radiation Workers	p. 436
18.7 Safety of the General Public	p. 439
References	p. 440
19 Radiation Safety in External-Beam Therapy	p. 443
19.1 Introduction	p. 443
19.2 Time, Distance, and Shielding	p. 444
19.3 Approach to Shielding Design of a Beam-Therapy Facility	p. 444
19.4 Estimating the Allowable Barrier Transmission	p. 451
19.5 High-Energy X-Rays and Neutron Production	p. 457
19.6 An Example of Shielding Calculations for a Facility	p. 460
19.7 Ozone Production	p. 467
19.8 Miscellaneous Aspects of Planning a Facility	p. 467
References	p. 474
20 Radiation Safety in Brachytherapy	p. 478
20.1 Introduction	p. 478
20.2 Role of Time and Afterloading	p. 479
20.3 Role of Distance	p. 479
20.4 Role of Shielding	p. 480
20.5 Monitoring Instruments	p. 480
20.6 Source Storage and Preparation	p. 480
20.7 Source Inventory	p. 482
20.8 Source Wipe Tests	p. 482
20.9 Source Transport	p. 483
20.10 Safety of Nurses and Visitors During Treatment	p. 484
20.11 Procedure After Treatment	p. 484
20.12 Permanent Implants	p. 486
20.13 Personnel Monitoring	p. 486
20.14 Conclusion	p. 487
References	p. 487
Appendix A and B
Appendix A. Electron Mass Stopping Powers (in MeV cm[superscript 2] g[superscript -1]) for Various Materials	p. 491
Appendix B. Mass Attenuation Coefficients, Mass Energy Transfer Coefficients, and Mass Energy Absorption Coefficients (in cm[superscript 2] g[superscript -1]) for Various Materials	p. 499
Subject Index	p. 507

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