Rapid manufacturing : an industrial revolution for the digital age

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West Sussex, England : John Wiley and Sons, 2006

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9780470016138

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Rapid Manufacturing is a new area of manufacturing developed from a family of technologies known as Rapid Prototyping. These processes have already had the effect of both improving products and reducing their development time; this in turn resulted in the development of the technology of Rapid Tooling, which implemented Rapid Prototyping techniques to improve its own processes. Rapid Manufacturing has developed as the next stage, in which the need for tooling is eliminated. It has been shown that it is economically feasible to use existing commercial Rapid Prototyping systems to manufacture series parts in quantities of up to 20,000 and customised parts in quantities of hundreds of thousands. This form of manufacturing can be incredibly cost-effective and the process is far more flexible than conventional manufacturing.

Rapid Manufacturing: An Industrial Revolution for the Digital Age addresses the academic fundamentals of Rapid Manufacturing as well as focussing on case studies and applications across a wide range of industry sectors. As a technology that allows manufacturers to create products without tools, it enables previously impossible geometries to be made. This book is abundant with images depicting the fantastic array of products that are now being commercially manufactured using these technologies.

Includes contributions from leading researchers working at the forefront of industry. Features detailed illustrations throughout.

Rapid Manufacturing: An Industrial Revolution for the Digital Age is a groundbreaking text that provides excellent coverage of this fast emerging industry. It will interest manufacturing industry practitioners in research and development, product design and materials science, as well as having a theoretical appeal to researchers and post-graduate students in manufacturing engineering, product design, CAD/CAM and CIFM.

Author Notes

Neil Hopkinson is a lecturer in the Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at Loughborough University, UK. Having obtained his PhD in Rapid Tooling in 1999, Neil began to look into the economic viability of Rapid Manufacturing. Inspired by the findings of this research Neil began to investigate lowcost, high-speed Rapid Manufacturing processes while also focusing his research on material properties in powder-based layer manufacturing processes. To date Neil has secured over £1 million of research funding and published over 40 journal/conference papers; he was also an invited visiting lecturer at the University of Queensland in Australia.

Phill Dickens is Professor of Manufacturing Technology and Director of the Innovative Manufacturing and Construction Research Centre at Loughborough University, UK. He is also Associate Dean of Research for the Engineering Faculty. Phill started work in the area of Rapid Prototyping in 1990, working on processes such as 3D Welding and using copper coated SL models as electrodes for EDM. The research work has changed emphasis since then from Rapid Prototyping to Rapid Tooling and is now concentrating on Rapid Manufacturing.

Richard Hague is a Senior Lecturer and Head of the Rapid Manufacturing Research Group at Loughborough University, UK. He has been involved with Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Manufacturing (RM) research since 1993, and is now Principal Investigator on several large EPSRC, DTI and EU funded research projects. He was also instrumental in setting up and managing the successful Rapid Manufacturing Consortium that now operates from Loughborough. Richard has many academic publications in the area of Rapid Manufacturing and is referee to several international academic journals and conferences. He also holds a patent that was gained as part of his PhD studies which is licensed to the predominant manufacturer of Rapid Prototyping equipment (3D Systems Inc.).

Terry WohlersNeil Hopkinson and Richard Hague and Phill DickensRichard HagueR.I. CampbellRik Knoppers and Richard HagueNeil Hopkinson and Phill DickensDavid L. BourellPoonjolai Erasenthiran and Valter BealTim GornetNeil HopkinsonChris Tuck and Richard HagueRuss Harris and Monica SavalaniMartin Masters and Therese Velde and Fred McBagonluriGraham TromansBrad FoxJohn WootenRoger SpielmanRupert SoarJanne Kyttanen

List of Contributors	p. xiii
Editors	p. xv
Foreword	p. xvii
1 Introduction to Rapid Manufacturing	p. 1
1.1 Definition of Rapid Manufacturing	p. 1
1.2 Latitude of Applications	p. 2
1.3 Design Freedom	p. 2
1.4 Economic for Volumes down to One	p. 3
1.5 Overcoming the Legacy of Rapid Prototyping	p. 3
1.6 A Disruptive Technology	p. 4
1.7 A Breakdown of the Field of Rapid Manufacturing	p. 4
2 Unlocking the Design Potential of Rapid Manufacturing	p. 5
2.1 Introduction	p. 5
2.2 Potential of Rapid Manufacturing on Design	p. 7
2.2.1 Conventional 'Design for Manufacture' (DFM)	p. 7
2.2.2 Conventional Design for Assembly (DFA)	p. 8
2.2.3 Impact of RM on DFM and DFA	p. 8
2.3 Geometrical Freedom	p. 9
2.3.1 Design Complexity/Optimisation	p. 10
2.3.2 Part Consolidation	p. 11
2.3.3 Body Fitting Customisation	p. 12
2.3.4 Multiple Assemblies: Textiles	p. 13
2.4 Material Combinations	p. 16
2.5 Summary	p. 17
References	p. 18
3 Customer Input and Customisation	p. 19
3.1 Introduction	p. 19
3.2 Why Is Customer Input Needed?	p. 20
3.3 What Input can the Customer Make?	p. 21
3.3.1 Functional Requirements	p. 22
3.3.2 Environmental Requirements	p. 22
3.3.3 Ergonomic Requirements	p. 22
3.3.4 User-Fit Requirements	p. 22
3.3.5 Aesthetic Requirements	p. 22
3.3.6 Emotional Requirements	p. 23
3.4 How Can Customer Input Be Captured?	p. 23
3.4.1 Rapid Manufacturing of Prototypes	p. 24
3.4.2 Reverse Engineering	p. 25
3.4.3 Interactive CAD Models	p. 25
3.5 Using Customer Input within the Design Process	p. 26
3.6 What Is Customisation?	p. 28
3.7 Determining Which Features to Customise	p. 29
3.8 Additional Customisation Issues	p. 30
3.9 Case Study - Customising Garden Fork Handles	p. 31
3.9.1 Customer Input Through the Use of Modelling Clay	p. 32
3.9.2 Translation into a CAD Model	p. 32
3.9.3 CAD Rendering	p. 33
3.9.4 Verification of Functionality	p. 34
3.10 Conclusions	p. 35
References	p. 36
4 CAD and Rapid Manufacturing	p. 39
4.1 Introduction	p. 39
4.2 CAD Background	p. 40
4.2.1 History of CAD	p. 40
4.2.2 NURB	p. 40
4.3 Relations between CAD and Rapid Manufacturing	p. 43
4.3.1 From NURB to Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Manufacturing	p. 43
4.4 Future Developments Serving Rapid Manufacturing	p. 43
4.4.1 Free Feature Modelling	p. 44
4.4.2 Product Specific CAD	p. 44
4.4.3 Repeating Features	p. 45
4.5 CAD for Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs)	p. 48
4.5.1 Voxel-Based FGMs	p. 49
4.5.2 VPD System	p. 50
4.5.3 Summary of FGMs	p. 53
4.6 Conclusion	p. 54
References	p. 54
5 Emerging Rapid Manufacturing Processes	p. 55
5.1 Introduction	p. 55
5.2 Liquid-Based Processes	p. 58
5.2.1 Stereolithography	p. 59
5.2.2 Jetting Systems	p. 60
5.2.3 Direct Light Processing Technologies	p. 61
5.2.4 High-Viscosity Jetting	p. 61
5.2.5 The Maple Process	p. 63
5.3 Powder-Based Processes	p. 64
5.3.1 Selective Laser Sintering (Polymers)	p. 64
5.3.2 Selective Laser Sintering (Ceramics and Metals)	p. 65
5.3.3 Direct Metal Laser Sintering	p. 66
5.3.4 Three-Dimensional Printing	p. 66
5.3.5 Fused Metal Deposition Systems	p. 67
5.3.6 Electron Beam Melting	p. 68
5.3.7 Selective Laser Melting	p. 68
5.3.8 Selective Masking Sintering	p. 68
5.3.9 Selective Inhibition Sintering	p. 70
5.3.10 Electrophotographic Layered Manufacturing	p. 72
5.3.11 High-Speed Sintering	p. 73
5.4 Solid-Based Processes	p. 75
5.4.1 Fused Deposition Modelling	p. 75
5.4.2 Sheet Stacking Technologies	p. 78
Acknowledgement	p. 79
References	p. 79
6 Materials Issues in rapid Manufacturing	p. 81
6.1 Role of Materials in Rapid Manufacturing	p. 81
6.2 Viscous Flow	p. 81
6.3 Photopolymerization	p. 83
6.4 Sintering	p. 84
6.5 Infiltration	p. 91
6.6 Mechanical Properties of RM Parts	p. 94
6.7 Materials for RM Processes	p. 97
6.8 The Future of Materials in Rapid Manufacturing	p. 98
Acknowledgement	p. 99
References	p. 99
7 Functionally Graded Materials	p. 103
7.1 Introduction	p. 103
7.2 Processing Technologies	p. 104
7.3 Rapid Manufacturing of FGM Parts - Laser Fusion	p. 106
7.3.1 Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS)	p. 106
7.3.2 LPS in Laser Processing Powders or FGMs	p. 107
7.3.3 Issues with Laser - Material Interactions	p. 110
7.4 Modelling and Software Issues	p. 111
7.4.1 Compositional Profile	p. 111
7.4.2 Software Issues	p. 112
7.5 Characterisation of Properties	p. 113
7.5.1 Thermal Properties	p. 114
7.5.2 Mechanical Properties	p. 116
7.6 Deposition Systems	p. 117
7.6.1 Local Composition Control	p. 117
7.7 Applications	p. 119
7.7.1 Aerospace	p. 119
7.7.2 Sporting Goods	p. 119
7.7.3 Medical	p. 119
Acknowledgement	p. 121
References	p. 121
8 Materials and Process Control for Rapid Manufacture	p. 125
8.1 Introduction	p. 125
8.2 Stereolithography	p. 126
8.2.1 Viability for Series Rapid Manufacturing	p. 131
8.3 Selective Laser Sintering	p. 132
8.3.2 Viability for Series Rapid Manufacturing using SLS	p. 138
8.4 Fused Deposition Modeling	p. 138
8.4.1 Viability for Series Rapid Manufacturing	p. 141
8.5 Metal-Based Processes	p. 142
8.5.2 Fused Metal Deposition Systems	p. 142
8.5.2 Viability for Series Rapid Manufacturing	p. 144
8.5.3 Powder Bed Systems	p. 145
8.5.4 Ultrasonic Consolidation	p. 145
8.5.5 Viability for Direct Serial Manufacturing	p. 146
References	p. 146
9 Production Economics of Rapid Manufacture	p. 147
9.1 Introduction	p. 147
9.2 Machine Costs	p. 148
9.3 Material Costs	p. 149
9.4 Labour Costs	p. 150
9.5 Comparing the Costs of Rapid Manufacture with Injection Moulding	p. 152
References	p. 156
10 Management and Implementation of Rapid Manufacturing	p. 159
10.1 Introduction	p. 159
10.2 Costs of Manufacture	p. 160
10.3 Overhead Allocation	p. 160
10.4 Business Costs	p. 160
10.5 Stock and Work in Progress	p. 161
10.6 Location and Distribution	p. 162
10.7 Supply Chain Management	p. 164
10.7.1 Lean	p. 165
10.7.2 Agile	p. 167
10.7.3 Leagility and Postponement	p. 167
10.7.4 Impact of RM on Mass Customisation	p. 168
10.7.5 RM and the Demand Chain	p. 169
10.8 Change	p. 170
10.9 Conclusions	p. 171
References	p. 172
11 Medical Applications	p. 175
11.1 Introduction	p. 175
11.2 Pre-Surgery RM	p. 176
11.3 Orthodontics	p. 179
11.4 Drug Delivery Devices	p. 181
11.5 Limb Prosthesis	p. 183
11.6 Specific Advances in Computer Aided Design (CAD)	p. 184
11.7 In Vivo Devices	p. 185
11.7.1 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) for In Vivo Devices	p. 186
11.7.2 SLA (Stereolithography Apparatus) for In Vivo Devices	p. 187
11.7.3 SLS for In Vivo Devices	p. 187
11.7.4 3DP for In Vivo Devices	p. 188
11.7.5 Other RM Processes for In Vivo Devices	p. 189
References	p. 191
12 Rapid Manufacturing in the Hearing Industry	p. 195
12.1 The Hearing Industry	p. 195
12.2 Manual Manufacturing	p. 196
12.3 Digital Manufacturing	p. 197
12.4 Scanning	p. 198
12.5 Electronic Detailing	p. 199
12.6 Electronic Modeling	p. 200
12.7 Fabrication	p. 202
12.8 Equipment	p. 203
12.9 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)	p. 203
12.10 Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)	p. 204
12.11 Raster-Based Manufacturing	p. 206
12.12 Materials	p. 207
12.13 Conclusion	p. 208
13 Automotive Applications	p. 211
13.1 Introduction	p. 211
13.2 Formula 1	p. 212
13.3 Cooling Duct	p. 213
13.4 The 'Flickscab'	p. 213
13.5 NASCAR	p. 215
13.6 Formula Student	p. 215
References	p. 219
14 Rapid Manufacture in the Aeronautical Industry	p. 221
14.1 Opportunity	p. 221
14.2 Overview	p. 221
14.3 Historical Perspective	p. 222
14.4 Aeronautical Requirements for RM	p. 223
14.5 Why RM Is Uniquely Suited to the Aeronautical Field	p. 223
14.6 Acceptable Technologies	p. 225
14.7 Qualifying RM Systems	p. 228
14.7.1 Qualifying SLS at British Aerospace (BAe)	p. 229
14.7.2 Qualifying SLS at Northrop Grumman	p. 229
14.8 Summary	p. 231
14.9 Case Studies	p. 231
Reference	p. 231
15 Aeronautical Case Studies using Rapid Manufacture	p. 233
15.1 Introduction	p. 233
15.2 Problem and Proposed Solution	p. 233
15.3 Benefits of a Rapid Manufacture Solution	p. 235
15.3.1 Design Flexibility Benefits	p. 235
15.3.2 'No Tooling' Benefits	p. 236
15.3.3 Systems Benefits	p. 237
15.4 Pre-Production Program	p. 237
15.5 Production	p. 238
15.6 Summary	p. 239
16 Space Applications	p. 241
16.1 Introduction	p. 241
16.2 Building the Team	p. 242
16.3 Quality Assurance	p. 244
16.4 How to 'Qualify' a Part Created Using This Process	p. 245
16.5 Producing Hardware	p. 246
17 Additive Manufacturing Technologies for the Construction Industry	p. 249
17.1 Introduction	p. 249
17.2 The Emergence of Freeform Construction	p. 250
17.2.1 Applying Lessons front Rapid Manufacturing	p. 250
17.2.2 Opportunities for Freeform Construction	p. 255
17.3 Freeform Construction Processes: A Matter of Scale	p. 262
17.3.1 Off-Site Processes	p. 263
17.3.2 On-Site Processes	p. 265
17.3.3 Off-World Processes	p. 267
17.4 Conclusions	p. 271
References	p. 272
18 Rapid Manufacture for the Retail Industry	p. 275
18.1 Introduction	p. 275
18.2 Fascinating Technology with Little Consumer Knowledge	p. 275
18.3 The Need for Rapid Prototyping to Change to Rapid Manufacturing	p. 276
18.4 Rapid Manufacturing Retail Applications	p. 276
18.4.1 Lighting	p. 276
18.4.2 Three-Dimensional Textiles	p. 278
18.5 Mass Customisation	p. 280
18.5.1 Mass Customised Retail Products	p. 280
18.5.2 Future Posibilities of Mass Customised RM Products	p. 280
18.5.3 Limitations and Possibilities	p. 281
18.6 Experimentation and Future Applications	p. 282
Index	p. 283

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