Thomas J. Mueller and James D. DeLaurierMark DrelaPeter J. Kunz and Ilan KrooJ. T. Monttinen and R. R. Shortridge and B. S. Latek and H. L. Reed and W. S. SaricE. V. LaitoneT. M. Grundy and G. P. Keefe and M. V. LowsonGabriel E. Torres and Thomas J. MuellerMichael S. Selig and Ashok Gopalarathnam and Philippe Giguere and Christopher A. LyonTh. Lutz and W. Wurz and S. WagnerAndy P. Broeren and Michael B. BraggJeremy M. V. RaynerC. P. Ellington and J. R. UsherwoodKenneth C. Hall and Steven R. HallHao Liu and Keiji KawachiRichard Ames and Oliver Wong and Narayanan KomerathK. D. Jones and T. C. Lund and M. F. PlatzerAkira Azuma and Masato Okamoto and Kunio YasudaRambod F. Larijani and James D. DeLaurierM. F. Neef and D. HummelRudolf BannaschKenneth D. Frampton and Michael Goldfarb and Dan Monopoli and Dragan CveticaninOthon K. Rediniotis and Dimitris C. LagoudasIlan Kroo and Peter KunzJoel M. Grasmeyer and Matthew T. KeennonRavi Ramamurti and William SandbergGeoffrey L. Barrows and Craig Neely and Kurt T. Miller

Preface	p. xv
Chapter 1 An Overview of Micro Air Vehicle Aerodynamics	p. 1
I. Introduction	p. 2
II. Fixed Wing Vehicles	p. 4
III. Flapping Wing Vehicles	p. 6
IV. Concluding Remarks	p. 8
References	p. 9
Part I. Fixed Wing Aerodynamics
Chapter 2 Higher-Order Boundary Layer Formulation and Application to Low Reynolds Number Flows	p. 13
I. Introduction	p. 14
II. Curvilinear Coordinates and Equations	p. 15
III. Equivalent Inviscid Flow	p. 16
IV. Entrainment Equation and Viscous/Inviscid Coupling	p. 17
V. Integral Momentum and Kinetic Energy Equations	p. 17
VI. Turbulent Transport Equation	p. 18
VII. Real Viscous Flow Profiles	p. 19
VIII. Profile Families	p. 21
IX. Higher-Order Corrections	p. 22
X. High-Order Panel Method	p. 24
XI. Viscous/Inviscid System Formulation	p. 29
XII. Results	p. 30
XIII. Conclusions	p. 33
References	p. 33
Chapter 3 Analysis and Design of Airfoils for Use at Ultra-Low Reynolds Numbers	p. 35
I. Introduction	p. 35
II. Computational Analysis Methods	p. 36
III. Flowfield Assumptions	p. 38
IV. Grid Topology	p. 39
V. Comparison with Experiment	p. 40
VI. Effects of Reynolds Number and Geometry Variations on Airfoil Performance	p. 41
VII. Airfoil Optimization	p. 56
VIII. Conclusions	p. 59
References	p. 59
Chapter 4 Adaptive, Unstructured Meshes for Solving the Navier-Stokes Equations for Low-Chord-Reynolds-Number Flows	p. 61
I. Introduction	p. 62
II. Approach	p. 63
III. The Finite Element Approximation	p. 66
IV. Fluid Solver	p. 67
V. Grid Generation and Adaptive Refinement	p. 70
VI. Results	p. 73
VII. Database Validation	p. 76
VIII. Ongoing Work	p. 76
IX. Conclusions	p. 79
Acknowledgment	p. 80
References	p. 80
Chapter 5 Wind Tunnel Tests of Wings and Rings at Low Reynolds Numbers	p. 83
I. Introduction	p. 83
II. Effect of Aspect Ratio and Planform on the Aerodynamic Lift and Drag	p. 84
III. Effect of Low Reynolds Numbers on the Lift and Drag of Ring Airfoils	p. 86
References	p. 90
Chapter 6 Effects of Acoustic Disturbances on Low Re Aerofoil Flows	p. 91
I. Introduction	p. 91
II. Experimental Arrangements	p. 94
III. Results	p. 98
IV. Discussion	p. 106
V. Potential Use of Sound to Improve Performance	p. 110
VI. Conclusions	p. 111
Acknowledgments	p. 112
References	p. 112
Chapter 7 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Low Aspect Ratio Wings at Low Reynolds Numbers	p. 115
I. Introduction	p. 116
II. Apparatus	p. 117
III. Procedures	p. 119
IV. Uncertainty	p. 120
V. Flow Visualization	p. 120
VI. Discussion of Results	p. 121
VII. Vortex-Lattice Method	p. 137
VIII. Conclusions	p. 139
Acknowledgments	p. 139
References	p. 140
Chapter 8 Systematic Airfoil Design Studies at Low Reynolds Numbers	p. 143
I. Introduction	p. 143
II. Design Process	p. 144
III. Parametric Studies in Airfoil Design	p. 147
IV. Summary and Conclusions	p. 164
Acknowledgments	p. 166
References	p. 166
Chapter 9 Numerical Optimization and Wind-Tunnel Testing of Low Reynolds Number Airfoils	p. 169
I. Introduction	p. 170
II. Aerodynamic Model	p. 171
III. Experimental Setup	p. 172
IV. Numerical Optimization of Low Reynolds Number Airfoils	p. 176
V. Experimental Investigations on Very Low Reynolds Number Airfoils	p. 182
VI. Conclusion and Outlook	p. 188
References	p. 188
Chapter 10 Unsteady Stalling Characteristics of Thin Airfoils at Low Reynolds Number	p. 191
I. Introduction	p. 191
II. Experimental Methods	p. 193
III. Results and Discussion	p. 196
IV. Summary and Conclusions	p. 211
Acknowledgments	p. 212
References	p. 212
Part II. Flapping and Rotary Wing Aerodynamics
Chapter 11 Thrust and Drag in Flying Birds: Applications to Birdlike Micro Air Vehicles	p. 217
I. Introduction	p. 217
II. Avian Flight Performance	p. 219
III. Thrust Generation	p. 222
IV. Drag Reduction	p. 224
V. Wing Shape	p. 226
VI. Conclusions	p. 227
Acknowledgments	p. 228
References	p. 228
Chapter 12 Lift and Drag Characteristics of Rotary and Flapping Wings	p. 231
I. Introduction	p. 232
II. Aerodynamics of Hovering Insect Flight	p. 232
III. Propeller Experiments at High Re	p. 237
IV. Results and Discussion	p. 241
Acknowledgments	p. 246
References	p. 246
Chapter 13 A Rational Engineering Analysis of the Efficiency of Flapping Flight	p. 249
I. Introduction	p. 250
II. The Influence of Wake Roll Up on Flapping Flight	p. 253
III. Minimum Loss Flapping Theory	p. 258
IV. Results	p. 264
V. Summary and Discussion	p. 271
Acknowledgments	p. 272
References	p. 272
Chapter 14 Leading-Edge Vortices of Flapping and Rotary Wings at Low Reynolds Number	p. 275
I. Introduction	p. 276
II. Computational Modeling of a Rotary Wing	p. 277
III. Numerical Accuracy	p. 279
IV. Results	p. 279
V. Conclusions	p. 284
Acknowledgment	p. 285
References	p. 285
Chapter 15 On the Flowfield and Forces Generated by a Flapping Rectangular Wing at Low Reynolds Number	p. 287
I. Introduction	p. 287
II. Previous Work	p. 288
III. Scope of Present Work	p. 290
IV. Experimental Setup	p. 290
V. Wing Motion	p. 291
VI. Velocity Data Planes	p. 291
VII. Velocity Field Data Analysis	p. 293
VIII. Force Measurements	p. 294
IX. Results and Discussion	p. 295
X. Conclusions	p. 303
References	p. 303
Chapter 16 Experimental and Computational Investigation of Flapping Wing Propulsion for Micro Air Vehicles	p. 307
I. Introduction	p. 308
II. General Kinematics	p. 308
III. Plunging Airfoils	p. 311
IV. Pitching Airfoils	p. 318
V. Pitching and Plunging Airfoils	p. 320
VI. Airfoil Combinations	p. 324
VII. Summary and Prospective	p. 336
Acknowledgments	p. 336
References	p. 336
Chapter 17 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings at Low Reynolds Number	p. 341
I. Introduction	p. 343
II. Unsteady Wing Theory	p. 343
III. Experimental Aerodynamics	p. 354
IV. Geometrical Consideration of Blade Element Theory	p. 363
V. Forces and Moments Acting on Beating Wings	p. 374
VI. Conclusion	p. 385
References	p. 391
Chapter 18 A Nonlinear Aeroelastic Model for the Study of Flapping Wing Flight	p. 399
I. Introduction	p. 401
II. Structural Analysis	p. 405
III. Aerodynamic and Inertial Forces and Moments	p. 407
IV. Damping	p. 415
V. Results and Discussion	p. 419
VI. Conclusions	p. 427
References	p. 428
Chapter 19 Euler Solutions for a Finite-Span Flapping Wing	p. 429
I. Introduction	p. 430
II. Numerical Method	p. 432
III. Investigations for Two-Dimensional Flow	p. 433
IV. Investigations for Three-Dimensional Flow	p. 441
V. Conclusions	p. 449
Acknowledgments	p. 449
References	p. 449
Chapter 20 From Soaring and Flapping Bird Flight to Innovative Wing and Propeller Constructions	p. 453
I. Introduction	p. 453
II. Bionic Airfoil Construction	p. 454
III. Bionic Propeller	p. 465
IV. Conclusions	p. 469
Acknowledgments	p. 470
References	p. 470
Chapter 21 Passive Aeroelastic Tailoring for Optimal Flapping Wings	p. 473
I. Introduction	p. 473
II. Experimental Setup	p. 475
III. Results	p. 477
IV. Conclusions	p. 481
Acknowledgments	p. 482
References	p. 482
Chapter 22 Shape Memory Alloy Actuators as Locomotor Muscles	p. 483
I. Introduction	p. 484
II. Brief Overview of SMA Actuators	p. 486
III. Thermomechanical Transformation Fatigue of SMA Actuators	p. 488
IV. Adaptive Control of SMA Actuator Wires	p. 491
V. Energy Considerations for SMA Actuators	p. 494
VI. SMA Actuators as Locomotor Muscles for a Biomimetic Hydrofoil	p. 496
VII. Conclusions	p. 498
Acknowledgments	p. 498
References	p. 498
Part III. Micro Air Vehicle Applications
Chapter 23 Mesoscale Flight and Miniature Rotorcraft Development	p. 503
I. Introduction	p. 503
II. Approach	p. 508
III. Testing	p. 515
IV. Conclusions	p. 516
Acknowledgments	p. 516
References	p. 517
Chapter 24 Development of the Black Widow Micro Air Vehicle	p. 519
I. Introduction	p. 519
II. Early Prototypes	p. 519
III. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization	p. 520
IV. Energy Storage	p. 524
V. Motors	p. 525
VI. Micropropeller Design	p. 526
VII. Airframe Structural Design	p. 528
VIII. Avionics	p. 530
IX. Video Camera Payload	p. 531
X. Stability and Control	p. 532
XI. Performance	p. 532
XII. Ground Control Unit	p. 533
XIII. Conclusions	p. 533
Acknowledgments	p. 535
References	p. 535
Chapter 25 Computation of Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Micro Air Vehicle	p. 537
I. Introduction	p. 538
II. The Incompressible Flow Solver	p. 538
III. Description of the Micro Air Vehicle Model	p. 539
IV. Discussion of Results	p. 540
V. Summary and Conclusions	p. 554
Acknowledgments	p. 554
References	p. 554
Chapter 26 Optic Flow Sensors for MAV Navigation	p. 557
I. Introduction	p. 557
II. Optic Flow	p. 557
III. Description of the Optic Flow Sensor	p. 560
IV. Use of Optic Flow for Navigation	p. 566
V. Initial In-Flight Experiments	p. 567
VI. Next-Generation Sensors	p. 571
VII. Conclusion	p. 573
Acknowledgments	p. 573
References	p. 573
Series Listing	p. 575