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Summary
Summary
Recently, there has been a serious effort to design aircraft that are as small as possible for special, limited-duration missions. These vehicles may carry visual, acoustic, chemical, or biological sensors for such missions as traffic management, hostage situation surveillance, rescue operations, etc. The goal is to develop aircraft systems that weigh less than 90 grams, with a 15-centimetre wingspan. Since it is not possible to meet all of the design requirements of a micro air vehicle with current technology, research is proceeding. This new book reports on the latest research in the area of aerodynamic efficiency of various fixed-wing, flapping wing, and rotary wing concepts. It presents the progress made by over 50 active researchers in the field from Canada, Europe, Japan, and the United States. It is the only book of its kind.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xv |
Chapter 1 An Overview of Micro Air Vehicle Aerodynamics | p. 1 |
I. Introduction | p. 2 |
II. Fixed Wing Vehicles | p. 4 |
III. Flapping Wing Vehicles | p. 6 |
IV. Concluding Remarks | p. 8 |
References | p. 9 |
Part I. Fixed Wing Aerodynamics | |
Chapter 2 Higher-Order Boundary Layer Formulation and Application to Low Reynolds Number Flows | p. 13 |
I. Introduction | p. 14 |
II. Curvilinear Coordinates and Equations | p. 15 |
III. Equivalent Inviscid Flow | p. 16 |
IV. Entrainment Equation and Viscous/Inviscid Coupling | p. 17 |
V. Integral Momentum and Kinetic Energy Equations | p. 17 |
VI. Turbulent Transport Equation | p. 18 |
VII. Real Viscous Flow Profiles | p. 19 |
VIII. Profile Families | p. 21 |
IX. Higher-Order Corrections | p. 22 |
X. High-Order Panel Method | p. 24 |
XI. Viscous/Inviscid System Formulation | p. 29 |
XII. Results | p. 30 |
XIII. Conclusions | p. 33 |
References | p. 33 |
Chapter 3 Analysis and Design of Airfoils for Use at Ultra-Low Reynolds Numbers | p. 35 |
I. Introduction | p. 35 |
II. Computational Analysis Methods | p. 36 |
III. Flowfield Assumptions | p. 38 |
IV. Grid Topology | p. 39 |
V. Comparison with Experiment | p. 40 |
VI. Effects of Reynolds Number and Geometry Variations on Airfoil Performance | p. 41 |
VII. Airfoil Optimization | p. 56 |
VIII. Conclusions | p. 59 |
References | p. 59 |
Chapter 4 Adaptive, Unstructured Meshes for Solving the Navier-Stokes Equations for Low-Chord-Reynolds-Number Flows | p. 61 |
I. Introduction | p. 62 |
II. Approach | p. 63 |
III. The Finite Element Approximation | p. 66 |
IV. Fluid Solver | p. 67 |
V. Grid Generation and Adaptive Refinement | p. 70 |
VI. Results | p. 73 |
VII. Database Validation | p. 76 |
VIII. Ongoing Work | p. 76 |
IX. Conclusions | p. 79 |
Acknowledgment | p. 80 |
References | p. 80 |
Chapter 5 Wind Tunnel Tests of Wings and Rings at Low Reynolds Numbers | p. 83 |
I. Introduction | p. 83 |
II. Effect of Aspect Ratio and Planform on the Aerodynamic Lift and Drag | p. 84 |
III. Effect of Low Reynolds Numbers on the Lift and Drag of Ring Airfoils | p. 86 |
References | p. 90 |
Chapter 6 Effects of Acoustic Disturbances on Low Re Aerofoil Flows | p. 91 |
I. Introduction | p. 91 |
II. Experimental Arrangements | p. 94 |
III. Results | p. 98 |
IV. Discussion | p. 106 |
V. Potential Use of Sound to Improve Performance | p. 110 |
VI. Conclusions | p. 111 |
Acknowledgments | p. 112 |
References | p. 112 |
Chapter 7 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Low Aspect Ratio Wings at Low Reynolds Numbers | p. 115 |
I. Introduction | p. 116 |
II. Apparatus | p. 117 |
III. Procedures | p. 119 |
IV. Uncertainty | p. 120 |
V. Flow Visualization | p. 120 |
VI. Discussion of Results | p. 121 |
VII. Vortex-Lattice Method | p. 137 |
VIII. Conclusions | p. 139 |
Acknowledgments | p. 139 |
References | p. 140 |
Chapter 8 Systematic Airfoil Design Studies at Low Reynolds Numbers | p. 143 |
I. Introduction | p. 143 |
II. Design Process | p. 144 |
III. Parametric Studies in Airfoil Design | p. 147 |
IV. Summary and Conclusions | p. 164 |
Acknowledgments | p. 166 |
References | p. 166 |
Chapter 9 Numerical Optimization and Wind-Tunnel Testing of Low Reynolds Number Airfoils | p. 169 |
I. Introduction | p. 170 |
II. Aerodynamic Model | p. 171 |
III. Experimental Setup | p. 172 |
IV. Numerical Optimization of Low Reynolds Number Airfoils | p. 176 |
V. Experimental Investigations on Very Low Reynolds Number Airfoils | p. 182 |
VI. Conclusion and Outlook | p. 188 |
References | p. 188 |
Chapter 10 Unsteady Stalling Characteristics of Thin Airfoils at Low Reynolds Number | p. 191 |
I. Introduction | p. 191 |
II. Experimental Methods | p. 193 |
III. Results and Discussion | p. 196 |
IV. Summary and Conclusions | p. 211 |
Acknowledgments | p. 212 |
References | p. 212 |
Part II. Flapping and Rotary Wing Aerodynamics | |
Chapter 11 Thrust and Drag in Flying Birds: Applications to Birdlike Micro Air Vehicles | p. 217 |
I. Introduction | p. 217 |
II. Avian Flight Performance | p. 219 |
III. Thrust Generation | p. 222 |
IV. Drag Reduction | p. 224 |
V. Wing Shape | p. 226 |
VI. Conclusions | p. 227 |
Acknowledgments | p. 228 |
References | p. 228 |
Chapter 12 Lift and Drag Characteristics of Rotary and Flapping Wings | p. 231 |
I. Introduction | p. 232 |
II. Aerodynamics of Hovering Insect Flight | p. 232 |
III. Propeller Experiments at High Re | p. 237 |
IV. Results and Discussion | p. 241 |
Acknowledgments | p. 246 |
References | p. 246 |
Chapter 13 A Rational Engineering Analysis of the Efficiency of Flapping Flight | p. 249 |
I. Introduction | p. 250 |
II. The Influence of Wake Roll Up on Flapping Flight | p. 253 |
III. Minimum Loss Flapping Theory | p. 258 |
IV. Results | p. 264 |
V. Summary and Discussion | p. 271 |
Acknowledgments | p. 272 |
References | p. 272 |
Chapter 14 Leading-Edge Vortices of Flapping and Rotary Wings at Low Reynolds Number | p. 275 |
I. Introduction | p. 276 |
II. Computational Modeling of a Rotary Wing | p. 277 |
III. Numerical Accuracy | p. 279 |
IV. Results | p. 279 |
V. Conclusions | p. 284 |
Acknowledgment | p. 285 |
References | p. 285 |
Chapter 15 On the Flowfield and Forces Generated by a Flapping Rectangular Wing at Low Reynolds Number | p. 287 |
I. Introduction | p. 287 |
II. Previous Work | p. 288 |
III. Scope of Present Work | p. 290 |
IV. Experimental Setup | p. 290 |
V. Wing Motion | p. 291 |
VI. Velocity Data Planes | p. 291 |
VII. Velocity Field Data Analysis | p. 293 |
VIII. Force Measurements | p. 294 |
IX. Results and Discussion | p. 295 |
X. Conclusions | p. 303 |
References | p. 303 |
Chapter 16 Experimental and Computational Investigation of Flapping Wing Propulsion for Micro Air Vehicles | p. 307 |
I. Introduction | p. 308 |
II. General Kinematics | p. 308 |
III. Plunging Airfoils | p. 311 |
IV. Pitching Airfoils | p. 318 |
V. Pitching and Plunging Airfoils | p. 320 |
VI. Airfoil Combinations | p. 324 |
VII. Summary and Prospective | p. 336 |
Acknowledgments | p. 336 |
References | p. 336 |
Chapter 17 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings at Low Reynolds Number | p. 341 |
I. Introduction | p. 343 |
II. Unsteady Wing Theory | p. 343 |
III. Experimental Aerodynamics | p. 354 |
IV. Geometrical Consideration of Blade Element Theory | p. 363 |
V. Forces and Moments Acting on Beating Wings | p. 374 |
VI. Conclusion | p. 385 |
References | p. 391 |
Chapter 18 A Nonlinear Aeroelastic Model for the Study of Flapping Wing Flight | p. 399 |
I. Introduction | p. 401 |
II. Structural Analysis | p. 405 |
III. Aerodynamic and Inertial Forces and Moments | p. 407 |
IV. Damping | p. 415 |
V. Results and Discussion | p. 419 |
VI. Conclusions | p. 427 |
References | p. 428 |
Chapter 19 Euler Solutions for a Finite-Span Flapping Wing | p. 429 |
I. Introduction | p. 430 |
II. Numerical Method | p. 432 |
III. Investigations for Two-Dimensional Flow | p. 433 |
IV. Investigations for Three-Dimensional Flow | p. 441 |
V. Conclusions | p. 449 |
Acknowledgments | p. 449 |
References | p. 449 |
Chapter 20 From Soaring and Flapping Bird Flight to Innovative Wing and Propeller Constructions | p. 453 |
I. Introduction | p. 453 |
II. Bionic Airfoil Construction | p. 454 |
III. Bionic Propeller | p. 465 |
IV. Conclusions | p. 469 |
Acknowledgments | p. 470 |
References | p. 470 |
Chapter 21 Passive Aeroelastic Tailoring for Optimal Flapping Wings | p. 473 |
I. Introduction | p. 473 |
II. Experimental Setup | p. 475 |
III. Results | p. 477 |
IV. Conclusions | p. 481 |
Acknowledgments | p. 482 |
References | p. 482 |
Chapter 22 Shape Memory Alloy Actuators as Locomotor Muscles | p. 483 |
I. Introduction | p. 484 |
II. Brief Overview of SMA Actuators | p. 486 |
III. Thermomechanical Transformation Fatigue of SMA Actuators | p. 488 |
IV. Adaptive Control of SMA Actuator Wires | p. 491 |
V. Energy Considerations for SMA Actuators | p. 494 |
VI. SMA Actuators as Locomotor Muscles for a Biomimetic Hydrofoil | p. 496 |
VII. Conclusions | p. 498 |
Acknowledgments | p. 498 |
References | p. 498 |
Part III. Micro Air Vehicle Applications | |
Chapter 23 Mesoscale Flight and Miniature Rotorcraft Development | p. 503 |
I. Introduction | p. 503 |
II. Approach | p. 508 |
III. Testing | p. 515 |
IV. Conclusions | p. 516 |
Acknowledgments | p. 516 |
References | p. 517 |
Chapter 24 Development of the Black Widow Micro Air Vehicle | p. 519 |
I. Introduction | p. 519 |
II. Early Prototypes | p. 519 |
III. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization | p. 520 |
IV. Energy Storage | p. 524 |
V. Motors | p. 525 |
VI. Micropropeller Design | p. 526 |
VII. Airframe Structural Design | p. 528 |
VIII. Avionics | p. 530 |
IX. Video Camera Payload | p. 531 |
X. Stability and Control | p. 532 |
XI. Performance | p. 532 |
XII. Ground Control Unit | p. 533 |
XIII. Conclusions | p. 533 |
Acknowledgments | p. 535 |
References | p. 535 |
Chapter 25 Computation of Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Micro Air Vehicle | p. 537 |
I. Introduction | p. 538 |
II. The Incompressible Flow Solver | p. 538 |
III. Description of the Micro Air Vehicle Model | p. 539 |
IV. Discussion of Results | p. 540 |
V. Summary and Conclusions | p. 554 |
Acknowledgments | p. 554 |
References | p. 554 |
Chapter 26 Optic Flow Sensors for MAV Navigation | p. 557 |
I. Introduction | p. 557 |
II. Optic Flow | p. 557 |
III. Description of the Optic Flow Sensor | p. 560 |
IV. Use of Optic Flow for Navigation | p. 566 |
V. Initial In-Flight Experiments | p. 567 |
VI. Next-Generation Sensors | p. 571 |
VII. Conclusion | p. 573 |
Acknowledgments | p. 573 |
References | p. 573 |
Series Listing | p. 575 |