Title:
Automotive gasoline direct-injection engines
Personal Author:
Publication Information:
Warrendale, Pa. : Society of Automotive Engineers, 2002
ISBN:
9780768008821
Subject Term:
Available:*
Library | Item Barcode | Call Number | Material Type | Item Category 1 | Status |
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Searching... | 30000010039865 | TL214.F78 Z49 2002 | Open Access Book | Book | Searching... |
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Summary
Summary
This book covers the latest global technical initiatives in the rapidly progressing area of gasoline direct injection (GDI), spark-ignited gasoline engines and examines the contribution of each process and sub-system to the efficiency of the overall system.Including discussions, data, and figures from many technical papers and proceedings that are not available in the English language, Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Systems will prove to be an invaluable desk reference for any GDI subject or direct-injection subsystem that is being developed worldwide.
Table of Contents
Foreword | p. xi |
Preface | p. xiii |
Acknowledgements | p. xvii |
Nomenclature | p. xix |
Chapter 1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Overview | p. 1 |
1.2 Gasoline Direct Injection versus Port Fuel Injection | p. 2 |
1.3 Classification of Gasoline Direct-Injection Engines | p. 7 |
1.4 Summary | p. 7 |
Chapter 2 Combustion System Configurations | p. 11 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 11 |
2.2 Relative Position of Fuel Injector and Spark Plug | p. 12 |
2.3 Approaches to Achieving a Stratified Charge | p. 15 |
2.3.1 Spray-Guided Combustion Systems | p. 16 |
2.3.2 Wall-Guided Combustion Systems | p. 19 |
2.3.3 Air-Guided Combustion Systems | p. 26 |
2.4 Summary | p. 27 |
Chapter 3 Fuel Injection System | p. 29 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 29 |
3.2 Fuel System Requirements | p. 29 |
3.3 Fuel Injector Requirements and Considerations | p. 31 |
3.4 Fuel Pressure Requirements | p. 33 |
3.5 Fuel Injector Classification | p. 35 |
3.5.1 Inwardly Opening, Single-Fluid Swirl Injector | p. 36 |
3.5.2 Shaped-Spray Injector | p. 37 |
3.5.3 Slit-Type Nozzle | p. 38 |
3.5.4 Multihole Nozzle | p. 38 |
3.5.5 Outwardly Opening, Single-Fluid Swirl Injector | p. 40 |
3.5.6 Piezoelectrically Actuated Injector | p. 41 |
3.5.7 Pulse-Pressurized, Air-Assisted (PPAA) Injector | p. 41 |
3.6 G-DI Injector Actuation and Dynamics | p. 44 |
3.7 Requirements Regarding Multiple Injections | p. 47 |
3.8 Summary | p. 47 |
Chapter 4 Fuel Spray Characteristics | p. 51 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 51 |
4.2 Spray Atomization Requirements | p. 52 |
4.3 Fuel Spray Classification | p. 56 |
4.4 Sac Spray Considerations | p. 60 |
4.5 After-Injection Dynamics and Atomization | p. 63 |
4.6 Fuel Spray Penetration and Cone Angle Considerations | p. 65 |
4.7 Characteristics of Offset Sprays | p. 72 |
4.8 Split Injection Considerations | p. 73 |
4.9 Spray Characteristics of Single-Fluid Swirl Injectors | p. 75 |
4.9.1 Swirl Nozzle Flow Dynamics and Effects of Design Parameters | p. 75 |
4.9.2 Effect of Fuel Swirl Ratio on Spray Characteristics | p. 79 |
4.9.3 Spray Characteristics of Inwardly Opening, Single-Fluid Swirl Injector | p. 81 |
4.9.4 Spray Characteristics of Outwardly Opening, Single-Fluid Swirl Injector | p. 84 |
4.9.5 Spray Characteristics of Shaped-Spray Injector | p. 84 |
4.10 Spray Characteristics of Single-Fluid, Non-Swirl Injectors | p. 88 |
4.10.1 Spray Characteristics of Slit-Type Nozzle | p. 88 |
4.10.2 Spray Characteristics of Multihole Nozzle | p. 88 |
4.10.3 Spray Characteristics During Cold Crank and Start | p. 91 |
4.11 Characteristics of Pulse-Pressurized, Air-Assisted Sprays | p. 92 |
4.12 Ambient Density Effect on Spray Development | p. 95 |
4.13 Injector Operating Temperature and Fuel Volatility Effects on Spray Development | p. 97 |
4.13.1 Injector Operating Temperature Effect on Spray Development of Swirl-Type Injector | p. 98 |
4.13.2 Combined Effects of Injector Operating Temperature and Ambient Back Pressure on Spray Development of Non-Swirl Injectors | p. 100 |
4.14 Spray Atomization Ranges for Design and Operating Variables | p. 105 |
4.15 Current Best-Practice Performance of G-DI Injectors | p. 106 |
4.16 Issues with G-DI Spray Characterization | p. 106 |
4.16.1 G-DI Fuel Spray Measurement Considerations | p. 106 |
4.16.2 Spray Characterization Issues | p. 110 |
4.16.3 G-DI Spray Measurement Techniques and Hardware | p. 112 |
4.16.4 DV80 versus DV90 Measurement Accuracy | p. 114 |
4.17 Summary | p. 116 |
Chapter 5 Mixture Formation Process and Approaches | p. 121 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 121 |
5.2 Relation of In-Cylinder Flow Characteristics to G-DI Combustion | p. 121 |
5.2.1 Typical In-Cylinder Flow Characteristics in SI Engines | p. 121 |
5.2.2 G-DI Flow Field Characteristics and Considerations | p. 122 |
5.2.3 Effect of Fuel Injection Event on In-Cylinder Flow Field | p. 126 |
5.3 Fuel-Air Mixing Process | p. 128 |
5.3.1 In-Cylinder Charge Cooling | p. 128 |
5.3.2 In-Cylinder Fuel-Air Mixing Characteristics | p. 131 |
5.4 Spray-Wall Interactions | p. 136 |
5.4.1 Interactions of G-DI Sprays with Interposed Surfaces | p. 137 |
5.4.2 Spray-Wall-Interaction Phasing Issues | p. 147 |
5.4.3 Spray Wetted Footprints | p. 149 |
5.5 Unintended Spray-Wall Impingement | p. 155 |
5.5.1 Effect of Spray-Wall Impingement on Combustion and Emissions | p. 155 |
5.5.2 Effect of Cylinder-Bore Fuel Wetting on Oil Dilution | p. 159 |
5.6 Wall Wetting During Cold Start | p. 161 |
5.7 Summary | p. 164 |
Chapter 6 Combustion Process and Control Strategies | p. 165 |
6.1 Introduction | p. 165 |
6.2 Engine Operating Modes and Fuel Injection Strategies | p. 166 |
6.2.1 Early-Injection, Homogeneous-Charge Operation | p. 166 |
6.2.2 Late-Injection, Stratified-Charge Operation | p. 166 |
6.2.3 Stoichiometric-Charge Operation | p. 167 |
6.2.4 Slightly Lean, Stratified-Charge Operation for Improving Catalyst Light-Off Characteristics | p. 169 |
6.2.5 Operating Mode Transition | p. 171 |
6.2.6 Comparison of Operating Mode Complexity | p. 172 |
6.2.7 G-DI Engine Operating Classes | p. 174 |
6.3 Split Injection Strategy | p. 174 |
6.3.1 Two-Stage Injection Strategy for Mode Transition | p. 174 |
6.3.2 Split Injection for Improving Full-Load Performance | p. 176 |
6.3.3 Post Injection for Improving Catalyst Light-Off Characteristics | p. 177 |
6.3.4 Post Injection for NOx Storage Catalyst Regeneration | p. 179 |
6.3.5 Split Injection for Control of Homogeneous-Charge, Compression-Ignition Engine | p. 179 |
6.3.6 Implementation of Split Injection in Engine Operating Map | p. 180 |
6.4 Combustion Characteristics | p. 181 |
6.4.1 Homogeneous-Charge Combustion | p. 181 |
6.4.2 Comparison of Stratified-Charge and Homogeneous-Charge Combustion | p. 183 |
6.5 Effects of Engine Operating and Design Parameters on G-DI Combustion | p. 186 |
6.5.1 Effects of Injection Timing and Ignition Timing | p. 186 |
6.5.2 Effect of Spray Cone Angle | p. 189 |
6.5.3 Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation | p. 190 |
6.5.4 Knock Resistance Characteristics | p. 191 |
6.5.5 Comparison of Combustion Characteristics Between Air-Assisted and Single-Fluid G-DI Fuel Systems | p. 192 |
6.6 Summary | p. 193 |
Chapter 7 Deposit Issues | p. 195 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 195 |
7.2 Injector Deposits | p. 195 |
7.2.1 Negative Effects of Injector Deposits | p. 197 |
7.2.2 Injector Deposit Formation Process and Characteristics | p. 201 |
7.2.3 Formation Mechanism for Internal Injector Deposits | p. 204 |
7.2.4 Effect of Injector Tip Temperature on Injector Deposit Formation | p. 204 |
7.2.5 Effect of Operating Cycle on Injector Deposit Formation | p. 209 |
7.2.6 Effect of Injector Design on Injector Deposit Formation | p. 210 |
7.2.7 Effect of Fuel Composition on Injector Deposit Formation | p. 211 |
7.2.8 Deposit Formation Characteristics of Pulse-Pressurized, Air-Assisted G-DI Injectors | p. 212 |
7.3 Combustion Chamber Deposits | p. 215 |
7.4 Intake Valve Deposits | p. 216 |
7.5 Deposits on Other G-DI System Components | p. 219 |
7.6 Summary | p. 220 |
Chapter 8 Emissions: Formation Mechanisms and Reduction Strategies | p. 223 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 223 |
8.2 Hydrocarbon Emissions | p. 223 |
8.2.1 Hydrocarbon Emissions During Cold Start and Transient Operations | p. 223 |
8.2.2 Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions During Light-Load, Stratified-Charge Operation | p. 225 |
8.2.3 Effects of Operating Parameters on Hydrocarbon Emissions | p. 229 |
8.3 NOx Emissions | p. 232 |
8.3.1 NOx Emissions from Stratified-Charge G-DI Engines | p. 232 |
8.3.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation for NOx Control | p. 233 |
8.3.3 Requirements for Lean-NOx Aftertreatment Systems | p. 235 |
8.3.4 Lean-NOx Catalyst | p. 235 |
8.3.5 Operating Principle of NOx Storage Catalysts | p. 238 |
8.3.6 Operating Temperature Window for NOx Storage Catalysts | p. 240 |
8.3.7 NOx Storage Catalyst Regeneration Issues | p. 241 |
8.3.8 System Layout for NOx Storage Catalyst: Close Coupling versus Underfloor | p. 243 |
8.3.9 Effect of HC/NOx Ratio on NOx Storage Capacity | p. 244 |
8.3.10 Requirements on NOx Storage Catalysts and Close-Coupled Catalysts | p. 245 |
8.3.11 Sulfur Poisoning Issues and Desulfurization of NOx Storage Catalysts | p. 246 |
8.3.12 NOx Storage Catalyst Diagnostics | p. 248 |
8.3.13 Urea-Based SCR System | p. 250 |
8.3.14 Non-Thermal Plasma Aftertreatment System | p. 251 |
8.4 Particulate Emissions | p. 252 |
8.4.1 General Characteristics of Particulate Emissions from Engines | p. 252 |
8.4.2 Particulate Emissions from PFI Engines | p. 253 |
8.4.3 Particulate Emissions from G-DI Engines | p. 254 |
8.4.4 Comparison of Particulate Emissions Between Single-Fluid and Air-Assisted G-DI Engines | p. 257 |
8.5 Summary | p. 259 |
Chapter 9 Fuel Economy: Potential and Challenges | p. 261 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 261 |
9.2 Fuel Economy Potential and Constraints | p. 261 |
9.2.1 Factors Contributing to Improved Fuel Economy | p. 261 |
9.2.2 Comparison of Fuel Economy Benefits Between Single-Fluid and Air-Assisted G-DI Combustion Systems | p. 265 |
9.2.3 Fuel Economy versus Emissions Compromise | p. 267 |
9.2.4 Opportunities for Future Fuel Economy Improvement | p. 269 |
9.3 Gasoline Direct Injection Combined with Other Technologies | p. 272 |
9.3.1 Boosted G-DI Engine | p. 272 |
9.3.2 Turbocharged versus Supercharged G-DI Engines | p. 276 |
9.3.3 Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of a Boosted G-DI Engine | p. 276 |
9.3.4 Engine Shut-off Strategy During Idle | p. 277 |
9.3.5 G-DI Engine Combined with CVT | p. 282 |
9.3.6 G-DI Engine for Hybrid Propulsion System Application | p. 283 |
9.4 Summary | p. 283 |
Chapter 10 Production and Prototype Gasoline Direct-Injection Systems | p. 285 |
10.1 Early DISC Engine Development | p. 285 |
10.2 Mitsubishi Reverse-Tumble-Based Wall-Guided GDI Combustion System | p. 288 |
10.3 Toyota Combustion Systems | p. 289 |
10.3.1 Toyota First-Generation, Swirl-Based, Wall-Guided D-4 Combustion System | p. 289 |
10.3.2 Toyota Second-Generation, Wall-Guided D-4 Combustion System | p. 295 |
10.4 Nissan Swirl-Based, Wall-Guided NEODi Combustion System | p. 299 |
10.5 Renault Spray-Guided IDE Combustion System | p. 300 |
10.6 Adam Opel Wall-Guided, ECOTEC DIRECT Combustion System | p. 301 |
10.7 Audi Wall-Guided Combustion System | p. 301 |
10.8 AVL Combustion Systems | p. 302 |
10.8.1 AVL Swirl-Based, Wall-Guided Combustion System | p. 302 |
10.8.2 AVL Mixture Injection DMI Combustion System | p. 302 |
10.9 FEV Air-Guided Combustion System | p. 304 |
10.10 Fiat Combustion System | p. 305 |
10.11 Ford Combustion Systems | p. 305 |
10.11.1 Ford Spray-Guided Combustion System | p. 305 |
10.11.2 Ford Swirl-Based, Wall-Guided Combustion System | p. 306 |
10.12 Honda Spray-Guided Combustion System | p. 307 |
10.13 Isuzu Combustion System | p. 307 |
10.14 Mazda Swirl-Based, Wall-Guided Combustion System | p. 308 |
10.15 Mercedes-Benz Spray-Guided Combustion System | p. 309 |
10.16 Orbital Combustion System Employing Pulse-Pressurized, Air-Assisted Fuel Injection System | p. 310 |
10.17 PSA Reverse-Tumble-Based, Wall-Guided HPi Combustion System | p. 310 |
10.18 Ricardo Tumble-Based, Wall-Guided Combustion System | p. 311 |
10.19 Saab Spray-Guided SCC Combustion System | p. 312 |
10.20 Subaru Spray-Guided Combustion System | p. 313 |
10.21 Volkswagen Tumble-Based, Wall-Guided FSI Combustion System | p. 313 |
10.22 Summary | p. 314 |
References | p. 317 |
Index | p. 339 |
About the Authors | p. 351 |