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Library | Item Barcode | Call Number | Material Type | Item Category 1 | Status |
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Searching... | 30000010209973 | TP248.25.C44 C444 2007 | Open Access Book | Book | Searching... |
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Summary
Summary
Upstream processing refers to the production of proteins by cells genetically engineered to contain the human gene which will express the protein of interest. The demand for large quantities of specific proteins is increasing the pressure to boost cell culture productivity, and optimizing bioreactor output has become a primary concern for most pharmaceutical companies. Each chapter in Cell Culture and Upstream Processing is taken from presentations at the highly acclaimed IBC conferences as well as meetings of the European Society for Animal Cell Technology (ESACT) and Protein Expression in Animal Cells (PEACe) and describes how to improve yield and optimize the cell culture production process for biopharmaceuticals, by focusing on safety, quality, economics and operability and productivity issues.
Cell Culture and Upstream Processing will appeal to a wide scientific audience, both professional practitioners of animal cell technology as well as students of biochemical engineering or biotechnology in graduate or high level undergraduate courses at university.
Author Notes
Michael Butler-Associate Dean of Science; Professor of Cell Technology, Department of Microbiology, School of Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
Table of Contents
Contributors | p. ix |
Abbreviations | p. xi |
Preface | p. xiii |
Overview on mammalian cell culture | |
1 Cell line development and culture strategies: future prospects to improve yields | p. 3 |
1.1 Introduction | p. 3 |
1.2 Cell line transfection and selection | p. 5 |
1.3 Increase in efficiency in selecting a producer cell line | p. 6 |
1.4 Stability of gene expression | p. 8 |
1.5 Optimization of the fermentation process | p. 9 |
1.6 Apoptosis | p. 11 |
1.7 Bioreactors | p. 11 |
1.8 The capacity crunch | p. 12 |
Acknowledgment | p. 13 |
References | p. 13 |
The producer cell line | |
2 Use of DNA insulator elements and scaffold/matrix-attached regions for enhanced recombinant protein expression | p. 19 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 19 |
2.2 The position effect | p. 20 |
2.3 Use of insulators and S/MARs can reduce the effects of heterochromatin on transgene expression | p. 20 |
2.4 DNA insulator elements | p. 22 |
2.5 The scaffold/matrix-attachment regions | p. 23 |
2.6 Binding proteins for DNA insulators and S/MARs | p. 25 |
2.7 DNA insulators or S/MARs can be incorporated into expression vectors | p. 26 |
2.8 DNA insulators and S/MARs act in a context-dependent manner | p. 30 |
2.9 Conclusion | p. 31 |
Acknowledgements | p. 32 |
References | p. 32 |
3 Targeted gene insertion to enhance protein production from cell lines | p. 37 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 37 |
3.2 Identification of genomic 'hot spot' loci | p. 39 |
3.3 Recombinase-mediated site-specific gene insertion | p. 39 |
3.3.1 Cre, Flp, and [phiv]C31 recombinase systems | p. 40 |
3.3.2 Recombinase-mediated cassette exchange | p. 40 |
3.3.3 Gene insertion at native 'pseudo' recombinase sites | p. 43 |
3.3.4 Modification of recombinases and their target sites | p. 43 |
3.4 Emerging technologies for targeted gene insertion | p. 44 |
3.4.1 Homing endonucleases in HDR-mediated targeted gene insertion | p. 46 |
3.4.2 Targeted gene insertion into native loci by zinc finger, nuclease-mediated, high-frequency, homologous recombination | p. 47 |
3.5 Perspective | p. 50 |
References | p. 52 |
4 Recombinant human IgG production from myeloma and Chinese hamster ovary cells | p. 57 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 57 |
4.2 The need for recombinant human antibodies | p. 57 |
4.3 Recombinant antibodies | p. 58 |
4.4 Decoupling antibody isolation and production | p. 58 |
4.5 Choice of host cells | p. 59 |
4.5.1 Chinese hamster ovary cells | p. 60 |
4.5.2 Rodent myeloma cells | p. 60 |
4.6 The glutamine synthetase system | p. 60 |
4.7 Cell line stability | p. 61 |
4.8 Bioreactor process strategies | p. 62 |
4.9 IgG supply during antibody development | p. 62 |
4.10 Strategies for cell line engineering during clinical development | p. 63 |
4.11 Cost of goods and intellectual property | p. 64 |
4.12 Recombinant human IgG production from myeloma and CHO cells | p. 64 |
4.12.1 Creation of CHO and NS0 cell lines expressing IgG | p. 64 |
4.12.2 Cell expansion, subculture and production reactor experiments | p. 65 |
4.12.3 Northern and western blotting | p. 65 |
4.12.4 Comparison of results of transfections from GS-NS0 and GS-CHO | p. 65 |
4.12.5 Dilution cloning and analysis of clonal heterogeneity | p. 66 |
4.12.6 Analysis of instability of a GS-NS0 cell line | p. 67 |
4.12.7 Output of transfections of GS-NS0 and GS-CHO | p. 68 |
4.12.8 IgG production stability of candidate GS-NS0 clones | p. 69 |
4.12.9 IgG production stability of GS-CHO transfectants | p. 70 |
4.12.10 Fed-batch bioreactor process for GS-NS0 and GS-CHO | p. 71 |
4.12.11 Analysis of IgG quality produced from GS-CHO and GS-NS0 bioreactor processes | p. 71 |
4.12.12 Comparative yield of different human IgGs produced from CHO or NS0 cells | p. 74 |
4.13 Summary | p. 74 |
Acknowledgments | p. 76 |
References | p. 76 |
Media development | |
5 Cell culture media development: customization of animal origin-free components and supplements | p. 81 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 81 |
5.2 Types of cell culture media | p. 82 |
5.3 Components of animal origin | p. 83 |
5.3.1 Segregate | p. 85 |
5.3.2 Mitigate | p. 87 |
5.3.3 Replace | p. 88 |
5.4 Summary and considerations for the future | p. 95 |
Acknowledgments | p. 98 |
References | p. 98 |
Glycosylated proteins | |
6 Post-translational modification of recombinant antibody proteins | p. 103 |
6.1 Introduction | p. 103 |
6.2 Common post-translational modifications | p. 104 |
6.3 Recombinant antibody therapeutics | p. 105 |
6.4 Structural and functional characteristics of human antibodies | p. 106 |
6.5 The human IgG subclasses: Options for antibody therapeutics | p. 106 |
6.6 The structure of human IgG antibodies | p. 108 |
6.7 IgG-Fc glycosylation | p. 110 |
6.8 IgG-Fab glycosylation | p. 112 |
6.9 Cell engineering to influence glycoform profiles | p. 115 |
6.10 IgG glycoforms and Fc effector functions | p. 116 |
6.11 Glycosylation engineering | p. 118 |
6.12 Pharmacokinetics and placental transport | p. 118 |
6.13 Antibody therapeutics of the IgA class | p. 119 |
6.14 Non-antibody recombinant (glyco)protein therapeutics, 'biosimilar' and 'follow-on' biologics | p. 120 |
6.14.1 Erythropoietin | p. 121 |
6.14.2 Tissue-type plasminogen activator | p. 122 |
6.14.3 Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) | p. 122 |
6.14.4 Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor | p. 122 |
6.14.5 Activated protein C | p. 122 |
6.15 Conclusions | p. 123 |
References | p. 123 |
7 Metabolic engineering to control glycosylation | p. 131 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 131 |
7.2 Manipulation of fucose content using RNAi technology in CHO cells | p. 132 |
7.2.1 Metabolic engineering of fucose content with an existing antibody production line | p. 132 |
7.2.2 Metabolic engineering of fucose content with simultaneous new stable cell line generation | p. 136 |
7.2.3 Effect of fucosylation levels on Fc[Gamma]R binding | p. 140 |
7.2.4 Effects of fucose content on antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity | p. 143 |
7.3 Discussion | p. 143 |
Acknowledgments | p. 146 |
References | p. 146 |
8 An alternative approach: Humanization of N-glycosylation pathways in yeast | p. 149 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 149 |
8.2 Yeast as host for recombinant protein expression | p. 152 |
8.3 N-linked glycosylation overview: Fungal versus mammalian | p. 152 |
8.4 A brief history of efforts to humanize N-linked glycosylation in fungal systems | p. 154 |
8.5 Sequential targeting of glycosylation enzymes is a key factor | p. 155 |
8.6 Replication of human-like glycosylation in the methylotrophic yeast | p. 157 |
8.7 A library of [Alpha]-1,2 mannosidases | p. 157 |
8.8 Transfer of N-acetylglucosamine | p. 158 |
8.9 Two independent approaches towards complex N-glycans: How to eliminate more mannoses | p. 159 |
8.10 Some metabolic engineering: Transfer of galactose | p. 161 |
8.11 More metabolic engineering: Sialic acid transfer. The final step | p. 162 |
8.12 Glyco-engineered yeast as a host for production of therapeutic glycoproteins | p. 162 |
8.13 N-linked glycans and pharmacokinetics of therapeutic glycoproteins | p. 164 |
8.14 N-glycans and their role in tissue targeting of glycoproteins | p. 164 |
8.15 N-glycans can modulate the biological activity of therapeutic glycoproteins | p. 165 |
8.16 Control of N-glycosylation offers advantages | p. 165 |
8.17 Conclusions | p. 166 |
References | p. 166 |
The Bioprocess | |
9 Perfusion or fed-batch? A matter of perspective | p. 173 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 173 |
9.2 Factors affecting the decision on choosing the manufacturing technology | p. 175 |
9.2.1 Technology expertise | p. 175 |
9.2.2 Facility design and scope (product dedicated versus multi-product) | p. 179 |
9.3 Impact of switching from perfusion to fed-batch | p. 180 |
9.3.1 Personnel requirements | p. 180 |
9.3.2 Liquid handling | p. 181 |
9.3.3 Equipment | p. 182 |
9.3.4 Manufacturing space | p. 182 |
9.3.5 Decrease in cycle time | p. 182 |
9.3.6 Direct costs of manufacturing | p. 182 |
9.3.7 Productivity and morale | p. 183 |
9.4 Conclusions | p. 183 |
Acknowledgments | p. 184 |
References | p. 184 |