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Summary
Summary
Energy costs impact the profitability of virtually all industrial processes. Stressing how plants use power, and how that power is actually generated, this book provides a clear and simple way to understand the energy usage in various processes, as well as methods for optimizing these processes using practical hands-on simulations and a unique approach that details solved problems utilizing actual plant data. Invaluable information offers a complete energy-saving approach essential for both the chemical and mechanical engineering curricula, as well as for practicing engineers.
Author Notes
F. Carl Knopf is the Robert D. and Adele Anding Professor of Chemical Engineering and Associate Director of the Center for Energy Studies' Minerals Processing Research Institute at Louisiana State University.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xiii |
Conversion Factors | p. xvii |
List of Symbols | p. xix |
1 Introduction to Energy Usage, Cost, and Efficiency | p. 1 |
1.1 Energy Utilization in the United States | p. 1 |
1.2 The Cost of Energy | p. 1 |
1.3 Energy Efficiency | p. 4 |
1.4 The Cost of Self-Generated versus Purchased Electricity | p. 10 |
1.5 The Cost of Fuel and Fuel Heating Value | p. 11 |
1.6 Text Organization | p. 12 |
1.7 Getting Started | p. 15 |
1.8 Closing Comments | p. 16 |
References | p. 16 |
Problems | p. 17 |
2 Engineering Economics with VBA Procedures | p. 19 |
2.1 Introduction to Engineering Economics | p. 19 |
2.2 The Time Value of Money: Present Value (PV) and Future Value (FV) | p. 19 |
2.3 Annuities | p. 22 |
2.4 Comparing Process Alternatives | p. 29 |
2.4.1 Present Value | p. 31 |
2.4.2 Rate of Return (ROR) | p. 31 |
2.4.3 Equivalent Annual Cost/Annual Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) | p. 32 |
2.5 Plant Design Economics | p. 33 |
2.6 Formulating Economics-Based Energy Optimization Problems | p. 34 |
2.7 Economic Analysis with Uncertainty: Monte Carlo Simulation | p. 36 |
2.8 Closing Comments | p. 38 |
References | p. 39 |
Problems | p. 39 |
3 Computer-Aided Solutions of Process Material Balances: The Sequential Modular Solution Approach | p. 42 |
3.1 Elementary Material Balance Modules | p. 42 |
3.1.1 Mixer | p. 43 |
3.1.2 Separator | p. 43 |
3.1.3 Splitter | p. 44 |
3.1.4 Reactors | p. 45 |
3.2 Sequential Modular Approach: Material Balances with Recycle | p. 46 |
3.3 Understanding Tear Stream Iteration Methods | p. 49 |
3.3.1 Single-Variable Successive Substitution Method | p. 49 |
3.3.2 Multidimensional Successive Substitution Method | p. 50 |
3.3.3 Single-Variable Wegstein Method | p. 52 |
3.3.4 Multidimensional Wegstein Method | p. 53 |
3.4 Material Balance Problems with Alternative Specifications | p. 58 |
3.5 Single-Variable Optimization Problems | p. 61 |
3.5.1 Forming the Objective Function for Single-Variable Constrained Material Balance Problems | p. 61 |
3.5.2 Bounding Step or Bounding Phase: Swann's Equation | p. 61 |
3.5.3 Interval Refinement Phase: Interval Halving | p. 65 |
3.6 Material Balance Problems with Local Nonlinear Specifications | p. 66 |
3.7 Closing Comments | p. 68 |
References | p. 69 |
Problems | p. 70 |
4 Computer-Aided Solutions of Process Material Balances: The Simultaneous Solution Approach | p. 76 |
4.1 Solution of Linear Equation Sets: The Simultaneous Approach | p. 76 |
4.1.1 The Gauss-Jordan Matrix Elimination Method | p. 76 |
4.1.2 Gauss-Jordan Coding Strategy for Linear Equation Sets | p. 78 |
4.1.3 Linear Material Balance Problems: Natural Specifi cations | p. 78 |
4.1.4 Linear Material Balance Problems: Alternative Specifications | p. 82 |
4.2 Solution of Nonlinear Equation Sets: The Newton-Raphson Method | p. 82 |
4.2.1 Equation Linearization via Taylor's Series Expansion | p. 82 |
4.2.2 Nonlinear Equation Set Solution via the Newton-Raphson Method | p. 83 |
4.2.3 Newton-Raphson Coding Strategy for Nonlinear Equation Sets | p. 86 |
4.2.4 Nonlinear Material Balance Problems: The Simultaneous Approach | p. 90 |
References | p. 92 |
Problems | p. 93 |
5 Process Energy Balances | p. 98 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 98 |
5.2 Separator: Equilibrium Flash | p. 101 |
5.2.1 Equilibrium Flash with Recycle: Sequential Modular Approach | p. 103 |
5.3 Equilibrium Flash with Recycle: Simultaneous Approach | p. 109 |
5.4 Adiabatic Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) Material and Energy Balances Including Rate Expressions: Euler's First-Order Method | p. 112 |
5.4.1 Reactor Types | p. 112 |
5.5 Styrene Process: Material and Energy Balances with Reaction Rate | p. 117 |
5.6 Euler's Method versus Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta Method for Numerical Integration | p. 121 |
5.6.1 The Euler Method: First-Order ODEs | p. 121 |
5.6.2 RK4 Method: First-Order ODEs | p. 122 |
5.7 Closing Comments | p. 124 |
References | p. 125 |
Problems | p. 125 |
6 Introduction to Data Reconciliation and Gross Error Detection | p. 132 |
6.1 Standard Deviation and Probability Density Functions | p. 133 |
6.2 Data Reconciliation: Excel Solver | p. 136 |
6.2.1 Single-Unit Material Balance: Excel Solver | p. 136 |
6.2.2 Multiple-Unit Material Balance: Excel Solver | p. 138 |
6.3 Data Reconciliation: Redundancy and Variable Types | p. 138 |
6.4 Data Reconciliation: Linear and Nonlinear Material and Energy Balances | p. 143 |
6.5 Data Reconciliation: Lagrange Multipliers | p. 149 |
6.5.1 Data Reconciliation: Lagrange Multiplier Compact Matrix Notation | p. 152 |
6.6 Gross Error Detection and Identification | p. 154 |
6.6.1 Gross Error Detection: The Global Test (GT) Method | p. 154 |
6.6.2 Gross Error (Suspect Measurement) Identification: The Measurement Test (MT) Method: Linear Constraints | p. 155 |
6.6.3 Gross Error (Suspect Measurement) Identification: The Measurement Test Method: Nonlinear Constraints | p. 156 |
6.7 Closing Remarks | p. 158 |
References | p. 158 |
Problems | p. 158 |
7 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System Performance, Design, and Off-Design Calculations: Ideal Gas Fluid Properties | p. 164 |
7.1 Equilibrium State of a Simple Compressible Fluid: Development of the T ds Equations | p. 165 |
7.1.1 Application of the T ds Equations to an Ideal Gas | p. 166 |
7.1.2 Application of the T ds Equations to an Ideal Gas: Isentropic Process | p. 166 |
7.2 General Energy Balance Equation for an Open System | p. 167 |
7.3 Cogeneration Turbine System Performance Calculations: Ideal Gas Working Fluid | p. 167 |
7.3.1 Compressor Performance Calculations | p. 167 |
7.3.2 Turbine Performance Calculations | p. 168 |
7.4 Air Basic Gas Turbine Performance Calculations | p. 169 |
7.5 Energy Balance for the Combustion Chamber | p. 172 |
7.5.1 Energy Balance for the Combustion Chamber: Ideal Gas Working Fluid | p. 172 |
7.6 The HRSG: Design Performance Calculations | p. 173 |
7.6.1 HRSG Design Calculations: Exhaust Gas Ideal and Water-Side Real Properties | p. 176 |
7.7 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System Performance with Design HRSG | p. 177 |
7.7.1 HRSG Material and Energy Balance Calculations Using Excel Callable Sheet Functions | p. 179 |
7.8 HRSG Off-Design Calculations: Supplemental Firing | p. 180 |
7.8.1 HRSG Off-Design Performance: Overall Energy Balance Approach | p. 180 |
7.8.2 HRSG Off-Design Performance: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Approach | p. 181 |
7.9 Gas Turbine Design and Off-Design Performance | p. 185 |
7.9.1 Gas Turbines Types and Gas Turbine Design Conditions | p. 185 |
7.9.2 Gas Turbine Design and Off-Design Using Performance Curves | p. 186 |
7.9.3 Gas Turbine Internal Mass Flow Patterns | p. 186 |
7.9.4 Industrial Gas Turbine Off-Design (Part Load) Control Algorithm | p. 188 |
7.9.5 Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Off-Design (Part Load) Control Algorithm | p. 189 |
7.9.6 Off-Design Performance Algorithm for Gas Turbines | p. 189 |
7.10 Closing Remarks | p. 193 |
References | p. 194 |
Problems | p. 194 |
8 Development of a Physical Properties Program for Cogeneration Calculations | p. 198 |
8.1 Available Function Calls for Cogeneration Calculations | p. 198 |
8.2 Pure Species Thermodynamic Properties | p. 202 |
8.3 Derivation of Working Equations for Pure Species Thermodynamic Properties | p. 207 |
8.4 Ideal Mixture Thermodynamic Properties: General Development and Combustion Reaction Considerations | p. 209 |
8.4.1 Ideal Mixture | p. 209 |
8.4.2 Changes in Enthalpy and Entropy | p. 209 |
8.5 Ideal Mixture Thermodynamic Properties: Apparent Difficulties | p. 211 |
8.6 Mixing Rules for EOS | p. 213 |
8.7 Closing Remarks | p. 215 |
References | p. 216 |
Problems | p. 216 |
9 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System Performance, Design, and Off-Design Calculations: Real Fluid Properties | p. 222 |
9.1 Cogeneration Gas Turbine System Performance Calculations: Real Physical Properties | p. 223 |
9.1.1 Air Compressor (AC) Performance Calculation | p. 224 |
9.1.2 Energy Balance for the Combustion Chamber (CC) | p. 224 |
9.1.3 C Functions for Combustion Temperature and Exhaust Gas Physical Properties | p. 224 |
9.1.4 Gas and Power Turbine (G&PT) Performance Calculations | p. 229 |
9.1.5 Air Preheater (APH) | p. 230 |
9.2 HRSG: Design Performance Calculations | p. 230 |
9.3 HRSG Off-Design Calculations: Supplemental Firing | p. 232 |
9.3.1 HRSG Off-Design Performance: Overall Energy Balance Approach | p. 233 |
9.3.2 HRSG Off-Design Performance: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Approach | p. 234 |
9.4 Gas Turbine Design and Off-Design Performance | p. 235 |
9.5 Closing Remarks | p. 237 |
References | p. 238 |
Problems | p. 238 |
10 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System Economic Design Optimization and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Numerical Analysis | p. 243 |
10.1 Cogeneration System: Economy of Scale | p. 244 |
10.2 Cogeneration System Confi guration: Site Power-to-Heat Ratio | p. 244 |
10.3 Economic Optimization of a Cogeneration System: The CGAM Problem | p. 245 |
10.3.1 The Objective Function: Cogeneration System Capital and Operating Costs | p. 246 |
10.3.2 Optimization: Variable Selection and Solution Strategy | p. 248 |
10.3.3 Process Constraints | p. 249 |
10.4 Economic Design Optimization of the CGAM Problem: Ideal Gas | p. 249 |
10.4.1 Air Preheater (APH) Equations | p. 249 |
10.4.2 CGAM Problem Physical Properties | p. 249 |
10.5 The CGAM Cogeneration Design Problem: Real Physical Properties | p. 250 |
10.6 Comparing CogenD and General Electric's GateCycle™ | p. 253 |
10.7 Numerical Solution of HRSG Heat Transfer Problems | p. 254 |
10.7.1 Steady-State Heat Conduction in a One-Dimensional Wall | p. 254 |
10.7.2 Unsteady-State Heat Conduction in a One-Dimensional Wall | p. 255 |
10.7.3 Steady-State Heat Conduction in the HRSG | p. 259 |
10.8 Closing Remarks | p. 266 |
References | p. 267 |
Problems | p. 267 |
11 Data Reconciliation and Gross Error Detection in a Cogeneration System | p. 272 |
11.1 Cogeneration System Data Reconciliation | p. 272 |
11.2 Cogeneration System Gross Error Detection and Identification | p. 278 |
11.3 Visual Display of Results | p. 281 |
11.4 Closing Comments | p. 281 |
References | p. 282 |
Problems | p. 283 |
12 Optimal Power Dispatch in a Cogeneration Facility | p. 284 |
12.1 Developing the Optimal Dispatch Model | p. 284 |
12.2 Overview of the Cogeneration System | p. 286 |
12.3 General Operating Strategy Considerations | p. 287 |
12.4 Equipment Energy Efficiency | p. 287 |
12.4.1 Stand-Alone Boiler (Boiler 4) Performance (Based on Fuel Higher Heating Value | p. 288 |
12.4.2 Electric Chiller Performance | p. 289 |
12.4.3 Steam-Driven Chiller Performance | p. 290 |
12.4.4 GE Air Cooler Chiller Performance | p. 291 |
12.4.5 GE Gas Turbine Performance (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 294 |
12.4.6 GE Gas Turbine HRSG Boiler | p. 8 |
Performance (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 295 |
12.4.7 GE Gas Turbine HRSG Boiler | p. 8 |
Performance Supplemental Firing (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 296 |
12.4.8 Allison Gas Turbine Performance (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 296 |
12.4.9 Allison Gas Turbine HRSG Boiler | p. 7 |
Performance (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 297 |
12.4.10 Allison Gas Turbine HRSG Boiler | p. 7 |
Performance Supplemental Firing (Based on Fuel HHV) | p. 297 |
12.5 Predicting the Cost of Natural Gas and Purchased Electricity | p. 298 |
12.5.1 Natural Gas Cost | p. 299 |
12.5.2 Purchased Electricity Cost | p. 299 |
12.6 Development of a Multiperiod Dispatch Model for the Cogeneration Facility | p. 302 |
12.7 Closing Comments | p. 309 |
References | p. 310 |
Problems | p. 310 |
13 Process Energy Integration | p. 314 |
13.1 Introduction to Process Energy Integration/Minimum Utilities | p. 314 |
13.2 Temperature Interval/Problem Table Analysis with 0° Approach Temperature | p. 316 |
13.3 The Grand Composite Curve (GCC) | p. 317 |
13.4 Temperature Interval/Problem Table Analysis with "Real" Approach Temperature | p. 318 |
13.5 Determining Hot and Cold Stream from the Process Flow Sheet | p. 319 |
13.6 Heat Exchanger Network Design with Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) | p. 324 |
13.6.1 Design above the Pinch | p. 325 |
13.6.2 Design below the Pinch | p. 327 |
13.7 Heat Exchanger Network Design with Stream Splitting | p. 328 |
13.8 Heat Exchanger Network Design with Minimum Number of Units (MNU) | p. 329 |
13.9 Software for Teaching the Basics of Heat Exchanger Network Design (Teaching Heat Exchanger Networks (THEN)) | p. 331 |
13.10 Heat Exchanger Network Design: Distillation Columns | p. 331 |
13.11 Closing Remarks | p. 336 |
References | p. 336 |
Problems | p. 337 |
14 Process and Site Utility Integration | p. 343 |
14.1 Gas Turbine-Based Cogeneration Utility System for a Processing Plant | p. 343 |
14.2 Steam Turbine-Based Utility System for a Processing Plant | p. 353 |
14.3 Site-Wide Utility System Considerations | p. 356 |
14.4 Closing Remarks | p. 362 |
References | p. 363 |
Problems | p. 363 |
15 Site Utility Emissions | p. 368 |
15.1 Emissions from Stoichiometric Considerations | p. 369 |
15.2 Emissions from Combustion Equilibrium Calculations | p. 370 |
15.2.1 Equilibrium Reactions | p. 371 |
15.2.2 Combustion Chamber Material Balances | p. 371 |
15.2.3 Equilibrium Relations for Gas-Phase Reactions/Gas-Phase Combustors | p. 372 |
15.2.4 Equilibrium Compositions from Equilibrium Constants | p. 376 |
15.3 Emission Prediction Using Elementary Kinetics Rate Expressions | p. 380 |
15.3.1 Combustion Chemical Kinetics | p. 380 |
15.3.2 Compact Matrix Notation for the Species Net Generation (or Production) Rate | p. 381 |
15.4 Models for Predicting Emissions from Gas Turbine Combustors | p. 382 |
15.4.1 Perfectly Stirred Reactor for Combustion Processes: The Material Balance Problem | p. 382 |
15.4.2 The Energy Balance for an Open System with Reaction (Combustion) | p. 385 |
15.4.3 Perfectly Stirred Reactor Energy Balance | p. 385 |
15.4.4 Solution of the Perfectly Stirred Reactor Material and Energy Balance Problem Using the Provided CVODE Code | p. 386 |
15.4.5 Plug Flow Reactor for Combustion Processes: The Material Balance Problem | p. 388 |
15.4.6 Plug Flow Reactor for Combustion Processes: The Energy Balance Problem | p. 389 |
15.5 Closing Remarks | p. 393 |
References | p. 393 |
CVODE Tutorial | p. 393 |
Problems | p. 394 |
16 Coal-Fired Conventional Utility Plants with CO2 Capture (Design and Off-Design Steam Turbine Performance) | p. 397 |
16.1 Power Plant Design Performance (Using Operational Data for Full-Load Operation) | p. 398 |
16.1.1 Turbine System: Design Case (See Example 16.1.xls) | p. 401 |
16.1.2 Extraction Flow Rates and Feedwater Heaters | p. 402 |
16.1.3 Auxiliary Turbine/High-Pressure Feedwater Pump | p. 402 |
16.1.4 Low-Pressure Feedwater Pump | p. 403 |
16.1.5 Turbine Exhaust End Loss | p. 403 |
16.1.6 Steam Turbine System Heat Rate and Performance Parameters | p. 405 |
16.2 Power Plant Off-Design Performance (Part Load with Throttling Control Operation) | p. 406 |
16.2.1 Initial Estimates for All Pressures and Effi ciencies: Sub Off_Design_Initial_Estimates ( ) | p. 406 |
16.2.2 Modify Pressures: Sub Pressure_Iteration ( ) | p. 406 |
16.2.3 Modify Effi ciencies: Sub Update Effi ciencies ( ) | p. 408 |
16.3 Levelized Economics for Utility Pricing | p. 409 |
16.4 CO2 Capture and Its Impact on a Conventional Utility Power Plant | p. 413 |
16.5 Closing Comments | p. 414 |
References | p. 417 |
Problems | p. 417 |
17 Alternative Energy Systems | p. 419 |
17.1 Levelized Costs for Alternative Energy Systems | p. 419 |
17.2 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC): Determination of Levelized Cost | p. 420 |
17.3 Nuclear Power Cycle | p. 425 |
17.3.1 A High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Nuclear Reactor (HTGR) | p. 425 |
References | p. 427 |
Problems | p. 427 |
Appendix. Bridging Excel and C Codes | p. 429 |
A.1 Introduction | p. 429 |
A.2 Working with Functions | p. 431 |
A.3 Working with Vectors | p. 434 |
A.4 Working with Matrices | p. 442 |
A.4.1 Gauss-Jordan Matrix Elimination Method | p. 442 |
A.4.2 Coding the Gauss-Jordan Matrix Elimination Method | p. 443 |
A.5 Closing Comments | p. 446 |
References | p. 448 |
Tutorial | p. 448 |
Microsoft C++ | p. 2008 |
Express: Creating C Programs and DLLs | p. 448 |
Index | p. 458 |