Robert T. Watson and Ian R. NobleJohn GracePete Smith and Pete FalloonRonnie Milne and Melvin G.R. CannellBrent R. Helliker and Joseph A. Berry and Alan K. Betts and Peter S. Bakwin and Kenneth J. Davis and James R. Ehleringer and Martha P. Butler and Daniel M. RicciutoA.J. (Han) Dolman and Reinder Ronda and Franco Miglietta and Philippe CiaisPhilippe Ciais and Ivan Janssens and Anatoly Shvidenko and Christian Wirth and Yadvinder Malhi and John Grace and E.-Detlef Schulze and Martin Heimann and Oliver Phillips and A.J. (Han) DolmanT. Andrew Black and David Gaumont-Guay and Rachhpal S. Jassal and Brian D. Amiro and Paul G. Jarvis and Stith T. Gower and Frank M. Kelliher and Allison Dunn and Steven C. WofsyDennis Baldocchi and Liukang XuYadvinder MalhiFrauz Conen and Argyro Zerva and Dominique Arrouays and Claude Jolivet and Paul G. Jarvis and John Grace and Maurizio MencucciniPeter Hogberg and Anders Nordgren and Mona N. Hogberg and Mikaell Ottosson-Lofvenius and Bhupinderpal-Singh and Per Olsson and Sune LinderTuomas Laurila and Mika Aurela and Annalea Lohila and Juha-Pekka TuovinenRainer Brumme and Louis V. Verchot and Pertti J. Martikainen and Christopher S. PotterClaudia I. Czimczik and Martina Mund and Ernst-Detlef Schulze and Christian WirthPaul G. Jarvis and Andreas Ibrom and Sune Linder

Contributors	p. xiii
Abbreviations	p. xvii
Preface	p. xxi
1 The global imperative and policy for carbon sequestration	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Climate change	p. 2
The carbon cycle	p. 3
The Kyoto Protocol	p. 4
Quantitative potential for LULUCF activities	p. 6
The technical debate	p. 8
Technical detail of processes and quantities	p. 8
Methodological issues	p. 8
Implementation issues	p. 9
Criticisms of supposed failings and potential scams	p. 9
Accounting options for sinks in later commitment periods	p. 11
Indirect anthropogenic effects	p. 11
Wall-to-wall accounting	p. 12
Other options for sink accounting	p. 13
Conclusions	p. 14
References	p. 15
2 Role of forest biomes in the global carbon balance	p. 19
Introduction: defining the questions about carbon sinks	p. 19
How much carbon is extracted annually from the atmosphere by forests and other biomes?	p. 20
Net primary productivity	p. 20
Net ecosystem productivity	p. 21
Net biome productivity	p. 23
Where are the sinks?	p. 23
Sinks at stand scale using forest inventory	p. 23
Sinks at forest scale using eddy covariance	p. 25
Sinks resulting from land-use change	p. 26
Sinks at regional and global scales	p. 26
What controls the strength of sinks?	p. 28
Atmospheric CO[subscript 2] concentration	p. 29
Temperature	p. 29
Nitrogen	p. 29
A simple model to estimate sink strength	p. 29
Will the sinks endure?	p. 30
Decomposition and global warming	p. 31
Photosynthesis, CO[subscript 2] concentration, and nutrition	p. 31
Lack of water	p. 31
What observation networks are required to monitor the sinks?	p. 32
Land-based: eddy covariance with forest inventory	p. 32
Atmospheric models	p. 32
Remote sensing of CO[subscript 2]	p. 33
Remote sensing of the land surface	p. 33
Remote sensing of biomass	p. 33
An observation network	p. 34
What are the feedbacks to the carbon cycle?	p. 34
Emergent properties of forest ecosystems	p. 34
Thinking about feedbacks	p. 36
Is it feasible to manage forests as sinks?	p. 37
The Kyoto charge	p. 37
Clean development mechanism projects	p. 38
Theoretical and possible sink capacities, and what cannot be counted	p. 38
Concluding remarks	p. 39
Acknowledgements	p. 40
References	p. 40
3 Carbon sequestration in European croplands	p. 47
Introduction	p. 47
Fluxes of carbon from European croplands	p. 47
Management options for carbon sequestration	p. 48
Biological and realistically achievable potential for carbon sequestration for cropland management options in Europe	p. 48
Duration of soil carbon sequestration and permanence of soil carbon sinks	p. 49
Measurement, monitoring, and verification of soil carbon sequestration	p. 50
Carbon sequestration as part of integrated policies promoting sustainability: a 'no regrets' policy	p. 51
Summary	p. 52
Conclusions	p. 53
Acknowledgements	p. 53
References	p. 53
4 Estimating forest and other terrestrial carbon fluxes at a national scale: the UK experience	p. 57
Introduction	p. 57
Changes in forests and other woody biomass stocks	p. 58
Methods used for UK national Greenhouse Gas Inventory	p. 58
Fluxes associated with afforestation of deep peats	p. 63
Wood products	p. 67
Mapping of UK forest carbon uptake	p. 67
Forest and grassland conversion (deforestation)	p. 69
Other removals and emissions of CO[subscript 2] within the land-use change and forestry sector	p. 70
Changes in soil carbon resulting from non-forest land-use change	p. 71
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] resulting from liming agricultural soils	p. 72
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] resulting from drainage of fenlands	p. 72
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] from peat extracted for use as fuel and in horticulture	p. 73
Changes in crop biomass resulting from agricultural management	p. 73
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] in other sectors and comparison with the Land-Use Change and Forestry sector	p. 73
Summary	p. 74
Acknowledgements	p. 75
References	p. 75
5 Regional-scale estimates of forest CO[subscript 2] and isotope flux based on monthly CO[subscript 2] budgets of the atmospheric boundary layer	p. 77
Introduction	p. 77
Atmospheric boundary layer description, scalar dynamics and the equilibrium assumption	p. 78
Equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer CO[subscript 2] flux method	p. 81
Isotopes in the equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer	p. 84
Conclusions	p. 87
References	p. 88
6 Regional measurement and modelling of carbon balances	p. 93
Introduction	p. 93
Convective boundary layer budgeting	p. 96
Eddy correlation flux aircraft	p. 99
Regional mesoscale modelling	p. 100
Discussion and conclusions	p. 103
Acknowledgements	p. 105
References	p. 105
7 The potential for rising CO[subscript 2] to account for the observed uptake of carbon by tropical, temperate, and Boreal forest biomes	p. 109
Introduction	p. 109
Observations of net primary productivity	p. 110
Net primary productivity from detailed site studies	p. 110
Net primary productivity from spatially extensive forest biomass inventories	p. 112
Estimation of net biome productivity	p. 113
The problems	p. 113
Estimation of net biome productivity using the ecosystem inventory approach	p. 114
Estimation of net biome productivity using the atmospheric inversion approach	p. 114
Comparing results from the inventory and inversion approaches	p. 115
Modelled net primary productivity and net biome productivity	p. 121
Linking net biome productivity to rising atmospheric CO[subscript 2] concentration	p. 122
A simple carbon cycle model	p. 122
Results from Siberia	p. 123
Results from Europe	p. 125
Results from Amazonia	p. 126
What are the uncertainties?	p. 126
Conclusions	p. 128
Summary	p. 129
Supplementary data	p. 130
References	p. 142
8 Measurement of CO[subscript 2] exchange between Boreal forest and the atmosphere	p. 151
Introduction	p. 151
Boreal landscape characteristics	p. 152
Importance of eddy covariance measurements in Boreal carbon balance studies	p. 154
Tower flux measurements	p. 155
Short-term eddy covariance studies	p. 156
Long-term eddy covariance studies	p. 161
Ecophysiological stand-scale flux measurements	p. 169
Chamber measurements	p. 169
Biometric carbon budgeting	p. 170
Effects of disturbance	p. 171
Upscaling eddy covariance measured fluxes to the biome scale	p. 172
Aircraft-based eddy covariance fluxes	p. 173
Estimating net biome productivity	p. 174
Ecosystem process models	p. 174
Convective boundary-layer budgeting approach	p. 175
Stable isotope methods	p. 175
Atmospheric inverse models	p. 176
Conclusions	p. 176
Achievements	p. 176
Where next?	p. 177
Summary	p. 177
Acknowledgements	p. 178
References	p. 178
9 Carbon exchange of deciduous broadleaved forests in temperate and Mediterranean regions	p. 187
Introduction	p. 187
Fundamental concepts	p. 188
Geographic distribution	p. 188
Composition, form, and function	p. 189
Composition and form	p. 189
Function	p. 191
Stand-scale carbon fluxes	p. 196
Temporal dynamics of net ecosystem CO[subscript 2] exchange	p. 197
Temperate deciduous forests	p. 197
Deciduous Mediterranean forests	p. 201
Canopy photosynthesis	p. 204
Ecosystem respiration	p. 204
Ecosystem carbon balances	p. 207
Future issues	p. 208
Acknowledgements	p. 208
References	p. 208
10 The carbon balance of the tropical forest biome	p. 217
Tropical forests in the global carbon cycle	p. 217
Deforestation and land-use change	p. 218
The view from the atmosphere	p. 221
A carbon sink away from the degradation?	p. 224
Pulling it all together	p. 226
Implications of a biosphere carbon sink for biodiversity	p. 227
Future prospects	p. 228
Acknowledgements	p. 232
References	p. 232
11 The carbon balance of forest soils: detectability of changes in soil carbon stocks in temperate and Boreal forests	p. 235
Introduction to soil carbon stocks	p. 235
Background to sites compared in this study	p. 237
Perthshire, UK	p. 237
Northumberland, UK	p. 237
Les Landes, France	p. 238
Previous studies on soil carbon content	p. 239
Estimation of the mean and variance in soil carbon stocks across studies	p. 239
Estimation of minimum detectable difference	p. 240
Soil carbon stocks in temperate biomes	p. 241
Sampling procedure	p. 241
Scaling of variance with plot size	p. 241
Factors affecting variance	p. 243
Sampling intensity and related minimum detectable changes	p. 246
Conclusions and summary	p. 247
Acknowledgements	p. 248
References	p. 248
12 Fractional contributions by autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration to soil-surface CO[subscript 2] efflux in Boreal forests	p. 251
Introduction	p. 251
What is respiring: what is autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration in soils?	p. 252
How do we separate autotrophic and heterotrophic soil activities?	p. 255
Tree girdling: an alternative method to estimate autotrophic respiration	p. 257
Effects of temperature on components of soil respiration	p. 260
A new perspective on the debate about turnover rates of fine roots	p. 261
Summary and concluding remarks	p. 262
Acknowledgements	p. 262
References	p. 263
13 Trace gas and CO[subscript 2] contributions of northern peatlands to global warming potential	p. 269
Introduction	p. 269
Global emissions and radiative forcing	p. 270
Northern peatlands	p. 271
Carbon dynamics in pristine mires	p. 273
Measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes	p. 273
Natural bogs and fens	p. 276
Peatlands drained for forestry	p. 279
Peatlands in agricultural use	p. 280
Afforested peatfields	p. 283
Cut-away and restored peatlands	p. 284
Climate change	p. 285
Conclusions	p. 286
Acknowledgements	p. 287
References	p. 287
14 Contribution of trace gases nitrous oxide (N[subscript 2]O) and methane (CH[subscript 4]) to the atmospheric warming balance of forest biomes	p. 293
Introduction	p. 293
Approaches to estimate the biome fluxes and data sources	p. 294
Nitrous oxide emission	p. 295
Methane uptake	p. 298
Results and discussion	p. 299
Nitrous oxide emission of forest biomes	p. 299
Methane uptake of forest biomes	p. 302
Contribution of CH[subscript 4] and N[subscript 2]O to the atmospheric warming balance of forests biomes	p. 309
Acknowledgements	p. 310
References	p. 310
15 Effects of reforestation, deforestation, and afforestation on carbon storage in soils	p. 319
Introduction	p. 319
Carbon storage in forest soils	p. 320
Effects of harvest and natural regeneration or reforestation on soil organic carbon pools	p. 322
Effects of deforestation on soil organic carbon pools	p. 323
Restoring cultivation-induced soil organic carbon losses by afforestation	p. 324
Conclusions	p. 328
Summary	p. 328
Acknowledgements	p. 329
References	p. 329
16 'Carbon forestry': managing forests to conserve carbon	p. 331
Multiple purpose forestry	p. 331
Kyoto and two kinds of forest	p. 332
What a forest does	p. 332
Trees and soil	p. 334
Carbon budgets of forests	p. 334
Natural disturbance	p. 335
Managerial disturbance	p. 336
A case study	p. 337
A model investigation of thinning	p. 340
What can we do?	p. 342
Minimize soil disturbance	p. 342
Increase gross primary productivity	p. 342
Lock the gate	p. 345
The wider perspective	p. 345
Conclusions	p. 346
Acknowledgements	p. 346
References	p. 346