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Summary
Summary
The Carbon Balance of Forest Biomes provides an informed synthesis on the current status of forests and their future potential for carbon sequestration.This volume is timely, since convincing models which scale from local to regional carbon fluxes are needed to support these international agreements, whilst criticisms have been levelled at existing empirical approaches. One key question is to determine how well eddy-flux measurements at the stand-level represent regional-scale processes. This may be related to specific management practices (age, plantation, fertilisation) or simple bias in choosing representative sites (ease of access, roughness, proximity to physical barriers). The ecology and regeneration state of temperate, tropical and boreal forests under current climatic conditions are discussed, together with partitioning of photosynthetic and respiratory fluxes from soils and vegetation. The volume considers how to integrate contrasting methodologies, and the latest approaches for scaling from stand to the planetary boundary layer.
Author Notes
Griffith, Howard; Jarvis, Paul
Table of Contents
Contributors | p. xiii |
Abbreviations | p. xvii |
Preface | p. xxi |
1 The global imperative and policy for carbon sequestration | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Climate change | p. 2 |
The carbon cycle | p. 3 |
The Kyoto Protocol | p. 4 |
Quantitative potential for LULUCF activities | p. 6 |
The technical debate | p. 8 |
Technical detail of processes and quantities | p. 8 |
Methodological issues | p. 8 |
Implementation issues | p. 9 |
Criticisms of supposed failings and potential scams | p. 9 |
Accounting options for sinks in later commitment periods | p. 11 |
Indirect anthropogenic effects | p. 11 |
Wall-to-wall accounting | p. 12 |
Other options for sink accounting | p. 13 |
Conclusions | p. 14 |
References | p. 15 |
2 Role of forest biomes in the global carbon balance | p. 19 |
Introduction: defining the questions about carbon sinks | p. 19 |
How much carbon is extracted annually from the atmosphere by forests and other biomes? | p. 20 |
Net primary productivity | p. 20 |
Net ecosystem productivity | p. 21 |
Net biome productivity | p. 23 |
Where are the sinks? | p. 23 |
Sinks at stand scale using forest inventory | p. 23 |
Sinks at forest scale using eddy covariance | p. 25 |
Sinks resulting from land-use change | p. 26 |
Sinks at regional and global scales | p. 26 |
What controls the strength of sinks? | p. 28 |
Atmospheric CO[subscript 2] concentration | p. 29 |
Temperature | p. 29 |
Nitrogen | p. 29 |
A simple model to estimate sink strength | p. 29 |
Will the sinks endure? | p. 30 |
Decomposition and global warming | p. 31 |
Photosynthesis, CO[subscript 2] concentration, and nutrition | p. 31 |
Lack of water | p. 31 |
What observation networks are required to monitor the sinks? | p. 32 |
Land-based: eddy covariance with forest inventory | p. 32 |
Atmospheric models | p. 32 |
Remote sensing of CO[subscript 2] | p. 33 |
Remote sensing of the land surface | p. 33 |
Remote sensing of biomass | p. 33 |
An observation network | p. 34 |
What are the feedbacks to the carbon cycle? | p. 34 |
Emergent properties of forest ecosystems | p. 34 |
Thinking about feedbacks | p. 36 |
Is it feasible to manage forests as sinks? | p. 37 |
The Kyoto charge | p. 37 |
Clean development mechanism projects | p. 38 |
Theoretical and possible sink capacities, and what cannot be counted | p. 38 |
Concluding remarks | p. 39 |
Acknowledgements | p. 40 |
References | p. 40 |
3 Carbon sequestration in European croplands | p. 47 |
Introduction | p. 47 |
Fluxes of carbon from European croplands | p. 47 |
Management options for carbon sequestration | p. 48 |
Biological and realistically achievable potential for carbon sequestration for cropland management options in Europe | p. 48 |
Duration of soil carbon sequestration and permanence of soil carbon sinks | p. 49 |
Measurement, monitoring, and verification of soil carbon sequestration | p. 50 |
Carbon sequestration as part of integrated policies promoting sustainability: a 'no regrets' policy | p. 51 |
Summary | p. 52 |
Conclusions | p. 53 |
Acknowledgements | p. 53 |
References | p. 53 |
4 Estimating forest and other terrestrial carbon fluxes at a national scale: the UK experience | p. 57 |
Introduction | p. 57 |
Changes in forests and other woody biomass stocks | p. 58 |
Methods used for UK national Greenhouse Gas Inventory | p. 58 |
Fluxes associated with afforestation of deep peats | p. 63 |
Wood products | p. 67 |
Mapping of UK forest carbon uptake | p. 67 |
Forest and grassland conversion (deforestation) | p. 69 |
Other removals and emissions of CO[subscript 2] within the land-use change and forestry sector | p. 70 |
Changes in soil carbon resulting from non-forest land-use change | p. 71 |
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] resulting from liming agricultural soils | p. 72 |
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] resulting from drainage of fenlands | p. 72 |
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] from peat extracted for use as fuel and in horticulture | p. 73 |
Changes in crop biomass resulting from agricultural management | p. 73 |
Emissions of CO[subscript 2] in other sectors and comparison with the Land-Use Change and Forestry sector | p. 73 |
Summary | p. 74 |
Acknowledgements | p. 75 |
References | p. 75 |
5 Regional-scale estimates of forest CO[subscript 2] and isotope flux based on monthly CO[subscript 2] budgets of the atmospheric boundary layer | p. 77 |
Introduction | p. 77 |
Atmospheric boundary layer description, scalar dynamics and the equilibrium assumption | p. 78 |
Equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer CO[subscript 2] flux method | p. 81 |
Isotopes in the equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer | p. 84 |
Conclusions | p. 87 |
References | p. 88 |
6 Regional measurement and modelling of carbon balances | p. 93 |
Introduction | p. 93 |
Convective boundary layer budgeting | p. 96 |
Eddy correlation flux aircraft | p. 99 |
Regional mesoscale modelling | p. 100 |
Discussion and conclusions | p. 103 |
Acknowledgements | p. 105 |
References | p. 105 |
7 The potential for rising CO[subscript 2] to account for the observed uptake of carbon by tropical, temperate, and Boreal forest biomes | p. 109 |
Introduction | p. 109 |
Observations of net primary productivity | p. 110 |
Net primary productivity from detailed site studies | p. 110 |
Net primary productivity from spatially extensive forest biomass inventories | p. 112 |
Estimation of net biome productivity | p. 113 |
The problems | p. 113 |
Estimation of net biome productivity using the ecosystem inventory approach | p. 114 |
Estimation of net biome productivity using the atmospheric inversion approach | p. 114 |
Comparing results from the inventory and inversion approaches | p. 115 |
Modelled net primary productivity and net biome productivity | p. 121 |
Linking net biome productivity to rising atmospheric CO[subscript 2] concentration | p. 122 |
A simple carbon cycle model | p. 122 |
Results from Siberia | p. 123 |
Results from Europe | p. 125 |
Results from Amazonia | p. 126 |
What are the uncertainties? | p. 126 |
Conclusions | p. 128 |
Summary | p. 129 |
Supplementary data | p. 130 |
References | p. 142 |
8 Measurement of CO[subscript 2] exchange between Boreal forest and the atmosphere | p. 151 |
Introduction | p. 151 |
Boreal landscape characteristics | p. 152 |
Importance of eddy covariance measurements in Boreal carbon balance studies | p. 154 |
Tower flux measurements | p. 155 |
Short-term eddy covariance studies | p. 156 |
Long-term eddy covariance studies | p. 161 |
Ecophysiological stand-scale flux measurements | p. 169 |
Chamber measurements | p. 169 |
Biometric carbon budgeting | p. 170 |
Effects of disturbance | p. 171 |
Upscaling eddy covariance measured fluxes to the biome scale | p. 172 |
Aircraft-based eddy covariance fluxes | p. 173 |
Estimating net biome productivity | p. 174 |
Ecosystem process models | p. 174 |
Convective boundary-layer budgeting approach | p. 175 |
Stable isotope methods | p. 175 |
Atmospheric inverse models | p. 176 |
Conclusions | p. 176 |
Achievements | p. 176 |
Where next? | p. 177 |
Summary | p. 177 |
Acknowledgements | p. 178 |
References | p. 178 |
9 Carbon exchange of deciduous broadleaved forests in temperate and Mediterranean regions | p. 187 |
Introduction | p. 187 |
Fundamental concepts | p. 188 |
Geographic distribution | p. 188 |
Composition, form, and function | p. 189 |
Composition and form | p. 189 |
Function | p. 191 |
Stand-scale carbon fluxes | p. 196 |
Temporal dynamics of net ecosystem CO[subscript 2] exchange | p. 197 |
Temperate deciduous forests | p. 197 |
Deciduous Mediterranean forests | p. 201 |
Canopy photosynthesis | p. 204 |
Ecosystem respiration | p. 204 |
Ecosystem carbon balances | p. 207 |
Future issues | p. 208 |
Acknowledgements | p. 208 |
References | p. 208 |
10 The carbon balance of the tropical forest biome | p. 217 |
Tropical forests in the global carbon cycle | p. 217 |
Deforestation and land-use change | p. 218 |
The view from the atmosphere | p. 221 |
A carbon sink away from the degradation? | p. 224 |
Pulling it all together | p. 226 |
Implications of a biosphere carbon sink for biodiversity | p. 227 |
Future prospects | p. 228 |
Acknowledgements | p. 232 |
References | p. 232 |
11 The carbon balance of forest soils: detectability of changes in soil carbon stocks in temperate and Boreal forests | p. 235 |
Introduction to soil carbon stocks | p. 235 |
Background to sites compared in this study | p. 237 |
Perthshire, UK | p. 237 |
Northumberland, UK | p. 237 |
Les Landes, France | p. 238 |
Previous studies on soil carbon content | p. 239 |
Estimation of the mean and variance in soil carbon stocks across studies | p. 239 |
Estimation of minimum detectable difference | p. 240 |
Soil carbon stocks in temperate biomes | p. 241 |
Sampling procedure | p. 241 |
Scaling of variance with plot size | p. 241 |
Factors affecting variance | p. 243 |
Sampling intensity and related minimum detectable changes | p. 246 |
Conclusions and summary | p. 247 |
Acknowledgements | p. 248 |
References | p. 248 |
12 Fractional contributions by autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration to soil-surface CO[subscript 2] efflux in Boreal forests | p. 251 |
Introduction | p. 251 |
What is respiring: what is autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration in soils? | p. 252 |
How do we separate autotrophic and heterotrophic soil activities? | p. 255 |
Tree girdling: an alternative method to estimate autotrophic respiration | p. 257 |
Effects of temperature on components of soil respiration | p. 260 |
A new perspective on the debate about turnover rates of fine roots | p. 261 |
Summary and concluding remarks | p. 262 |
Acknowledgements | p. 262 |
References | p. 263 |
13 Trace gas and CO[subscript 2] contributions of northern peatlands to global warming potential | p. 269 |
Introduction | p. 269 |
Global emissions and radiative forcing | p. 270 |
Northern peatlands | p. 271 |
Carbon dynamics in pristine mires | p. 273 |
Measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes | p. 273 |
Natural bogs and fens | p. 276 |
Peatlands drained for forestry | p. 279 |
Peatlands in agricultural use | p. 280 |
Afforested peatfields | p. 283 |
Cut-away and restored peatlands | p. 284 |
Climate change | p. 285 |
Conclusions | p. 286 |
Acknowledgements | p. 287 |
References | p. 287 |
14 Contribution of trace gases nitrous oxide (N[subscript 2]O) and methane (CH[subscript 4]) to the atmospheric warming balance of forest biomes | p. 293 |
Introduction | p. 293 |
Approaches to estimate the biome fluxes and data sources | p. 294 |
Nitrous oxide emission | p. 295 |
Methane uptake | p. 298 |
Results and discussion | p. 299 |
Nitrous oxide emission of forest biomes | p. 299 |
Methane uptake of forest biomes | p. 302 |
Contribution of CH[subscript 4] and N[subscript 2]O to the atmospheric warming balance of forests biomes | p. 309 |
Acknowledgements | p. 310 |
References | p. 310 |
15 Effects of reforestation, deforestation, and afforestation on carbon storage in soils | p. 319 |
Introduction | p. 319 |
Carbon storage in forest soils | p. 320 |
Effects of harvest and natural regeneration or reforestation on soil organic carbon pools | p. 322 |
Effects of deforestation on soil organic carbon pools | p. 323 |
Restoring cultivation-induced soil organic carbon losses by afforestation | p. 324 |
Conclusions | p. 328 |
Summary | p. 328 |
Acknowledgements | p. 329 |
References | p. 329 |
16 'Carbon forestry': managing forests to conserve carbon | p. 331 |
Multiple purpose forestry | p. 331 |
Kyoto and two kinds of forest | p. 332 |
What a forest does | p. 332 |
Trees and soil | p. 334 |
Carbon budgets of forests | p. 334 |
Natural disturbance | p. 335 |
Managerial disturbance | p. 336 |
A case study | p. 337 |
A model investigation of thinning | p. 340 |
What can we do? | p. 342 |
Minimize soil disturbance | p. 342 |
Increase gross primary productivity | p. 342 |
Lock the gate | p. 345 |
The wider perspective | p. 345 |
Conclusions | p. 346 |
Acknowledgements | p. 346 |
References | p. 346 |