LMF lexical markup framework

The community responsible for developing lexicons for Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine Readable Dictionaries (MRDs) started their ISO standardization activities in 2003. These activities resulted in the ISO standard - Lexical Markup Framework (LMF).
After selecting and defining a common terminology, the LMF team had to identify the common notions shared by all lexicons in order to specify a common skeleton (called the core model) and understand the various requirements coming from different groups of users.
The goals of LMF are to provide a common model for the creation and use of lexical resources, to manage the exchange of data between and among these resources, and to enable the merging of a large number of individual electronic resources to form extensive global electronic resources.
The various types of individual instantiations of LMF can include monolingual, bilingual or multilingual lexical resources. The same specifications can be used for small and large lexicons, both simple and complex, as well as for both written and spoken lexical representations. The descriptions range from morphology, syntax and computational semantics to computer-assisted translation. The languages covered are not restricted to European languages, but apply to all natural languages.
The LMF specification is now a success and numerous lexicon managers currently use LMF in different languages and contexts.
This book starts with the historical context of LMF, before providing an overview of the LMF model and the Data Category Registry, which provides a flexible means for applying constants like /grammatical gender/ in a variety of different settings. It then presents concrete applications and experiments on real data, which are important for developers who want to learn about the use of LMF.

Contents

1. LMF - Historical Context and Perspectives, Nicoletta Calzolari, Monica Monachini and Claudia Soria.
2. Model Description, Gil Francopoulo and Monte George.
3. LMF and the Data Category Registry: Principles and Application, Menzo Windhouwer and Sue Ellen Wright.
4. Wordnet-LMF: A Standard Representation for Multilingual Wordnets, Piek Vossen, Claudia Soria and Monica Monachini.
5. Prolmf: A Multilingual Dictionary of Proper Names and their Relations, Denis Maurel, Béatrice Bouchou-Markhoff.
6. LMF for Arabic, Aida Khemakhem, Bilel Gargouri, Kais Haddar and Abdelmajid Ben Hamadou.
7. LMF for a Selection of African Languages, Chantal Enguehard and Mathieu Mangeot.
8. LMF and its Implementation in Some Asian Languages, Takenobu Tokunaga, Sophia Y.M. Lee, Virach Sornlertlamvanich, Kiyoaki Shirai, Shu-Kai Hsieh and Chu-Ren Huang.
9. DUELME: Dutch Electronic Lexicon of Multiword Expressions, Jan Odijk.
10. UBY-LMF - Exploring the Boundaries of Language-Independent Lexicon Models, Judith Eckle-Kohler, Iryna Gurevych, Silvana Hartmann, Michael Matuschek and Christian M. Meyer.
11. Conversion of Lexicon-Grammar Tables to LMF: Application to French, Éric Laporte, Elsa Tolone and Matthieu Constant.
12. Collaborative Tools: From Wiktionary to LMF, for Synchronic and Diachronic Language Data, Thierry Declerck, Pirsoka Lendvai and Karlheinz Mörth.
13. LMF Experiments on Format Conversions for Resource Merging: Converters and Problems, Marta Villegas, Muntsa Padró and Núria Bel.
14. LMF as a Foundation for Servicized Lexical Resources, Yoshihiko Hayashi, Monica Monachini, Bora Savas, Claudia Soria and Nicoletta Calzolari.
15. Creating a Serialization of LMF: The Experience of the RELISH Project, Menzo Windhouwer, Justin Petro, Irina Nevskaya, Sebastian Drude, Helen Aristar-Dry and Jost Gippert.
16. Global Atlas: Proper Nouns, From Wikipedia to LMF, Gil Francopoulo, Frédéric Marcoul, David Causse and Grégory Piparo.
17. LMF in U.S. Government Language Resource Management, Monte George.

About the Authors

Gil Francopoulo works for Tagmatica (www.tagmatica.com), a company specializing in software development in the field of linguistics and documentation in the semantic web, in Paris, France, as well as for Spotter (www.spotter.com), a company specializing in media and social media analytics.

Author Notes

Gil Francopoulo works for Tagmatica (www.tagmatica.com), a company specializing in software development in the field of linguistics and documentation in the semantic web, in Paris, France, as well as for Spotter, (www.spotter.com), a company specializing in eReputation computation and text mining.

Nicoletta Calzolari and Monica Monaciani and Claudia SoriaGil Francopoulo and Monte GeorgeMenzo Windhouwer and Sue Ellen WrightPiek Vossen and Claudia Soria and Monica MonachiniDenis Maurel and Béatrice Bouchou-MarkhoffAida Khemakhem and Bilel Gargouri and Kais Haddar and Abdelmajid Ben HamadouChantal Enguehard and Mathieu MangeotTakenobu Tokunaga and Sophia Y.M. Lee and Virach Sornlertlamvanich and Kiyoaki Shirai and Shu-Kai Hsieh and Chu-Ren HuangJan OdukJudith Eckle-Kohler and Iryna Gurevych and Silvana Hartmann and Michael Matuschek and Christian M. MeyerÉric Laporte and Elsa Tolone and Matthieu ConstantThierry Declerck and Pirsoka Lendvai and Karlheinz MorthMaria Villegas and Muntsa Padró and Nuria BelYoshihiko Hayashi and Monica Monachini and Bora Savas and Claudia Soria and Nicoletta CalzolariMenzo Windhouwer and Justin Petro and Irina Nevskaya and Sebastian Drude and Helen Aristar-Dry and Jost GippertGil Francopoulo and Frédéric Marcoul and David Causse and Grégory PiparoMonte George

Preface	p. xiii
Chapter 1 LMF - Historical Context and Perspectives	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 The context	p. 2
1.3 The foundations: the Grosseto Workshop and the "X-Lex" projects	p. 4
1.4 EAGLES and ISLE	p. 5
1.5 Setting up methodologies and principles for standards	p. 6
1.5.1 The MILE methodology: toward LMF	p. 8
1.6 EAGLES/ISLE legacy	p. 10
1.6.1 Lessons learned for standard design	p. 12
1.6.2 Moving closer to LMF	p. 13
1.7 Interoperability: the keystone of the field	p. 14
1.8 Bibliography	p. 15
Chapter 2 Model Description	p. 19
2.1 Objectives	p. 19
2.2 The ISO specification	p. 19
2.3 Means of description	p. 20
2.4 Core model	p. 21
2.5 Core model and extension packages	p. 22
2.6 Morphology extension	p. 23
2.7 Machine-Readable Dictionary extension	p. 26
2.8 NLP syntax extension	p. 27
2.9 NLP semantic extension	p. 29
2.10 Multilingual notation extension	p. 31
2.11 NLP morphological pattern extension	p. 33
2.12 NLP multiword expression pattern extension	p. 36
2.13 Constraint expression extension	p. 38
2.14 Conclusion	p. 39
2.15 Bibliography	p. 40
Chapter 3 LMF and the Data Category Registry: Principles and Application	p. 41
3.1 Introduction	p. 41
3.2 Data category specifications	p. 42
3.2.1 Data model	p. 42
3.2.2 Persistent identifiers	p. 43
3.2.3 Standardization	p. 43
3.3 The ISOcat Data Category Registry	p. 44
3.3.1 A web user interface	p. 44
3.3.2 Communities	p. 45
3.4 LMF and data categories	p. 45
3.4.1 Data category selections	p. 45
3.4.2 Referring to data categories	p. 45
3.4.3 Standardizing data categories	p. 48
3.5 Conclusions and future work	p. 49
3.6 Bibliography	p. 49
Chapter 4 Wordnet-LMF: A Standard Representation for Multilingual Wordnets	p. 51
4.1 Introduction	p. 51
4.2 The KYOTO project	p. 52
4.3 LMF and Wordnet representation	p. 54
4.4 Wordnet-LMF	p. 56
4.4.1 Designing Wordnet-LMF	p. 57
4.4.2 LMF components	p. 58
4.4.3 Additional and custom components	p. 59
4.4.4 Comparing LMF and Wordnet-LMF	p. 60
4.5 Conclusions	p. 62
4.6 Bibliography	p. 65
Chapter 5 Prolmf: A Multilingual Dictionary of Proper Names and their Relations	p. 67
5.1 Motivation	p. 67
5.2 Prolmf basis	p. 69
5.3 More on lexica and relations in Prolmf	p. 73
5.4 Conclusion	p. 77
5.5 Bibliography	p. 79
5.6 Appendix	p. 80
Chapter 6 LMF for Arabic	p. 83
6.1 Introduction	p. 83
6.2 Modeling of the basic properties	p. 85
6.3 Modeling of the morphologic extension	p. 86
6.4 Modeling of the morphologic pattern extension	p. 88
6.5 Modeling of the syntactic extension	p. 90
6.6 Modeling of the semantic extension	p. 92
6.7 Arabic LMF applications	p. 94
6.8 Implementation	p. 95
6.9 Conclusion	p. 96
6.10 Bibliography	p. 96
Chapter 7 LMF for a Selection of African Languages	p. 99
7.1 Introduction	p. 99
7.2 Less-resourced languages	p. 99
7.2.1 Definition	p. 99
7.2.2 Socio-economic context	p. 100
7.2.3 Linguistic resources	p. 101
7.2.4 Building electronic lexical resources	p. 101
7.3 From published dictionaries to LMF	p. 102
7.3.1 Objectives	p. 102
7.3.2 Methodology	p. 102
7.4 Illustrations	p. 104
7.4.1 Definition of the copy format	p. 104
7.4.2 From original format to copy format	p. 107
7.4.3 From copy format to pivot format	p. 109
7.4.4 From pivot format to target format	p. 110
7.5 Difficulties and proposals	p. 113
7.5.1 Data category	p. 113
7.5.2 LMF structure	p. 113
7.5.3 Adding annotations	p. 116
7.6 Conclusion	p. 117
7.7 Acknowledgments	p. 117
7.8 Bibliography	p. 117
Chapter 8 LMF and its Implementation in Some Asian Languages	p. 119
8.1 Introduction	p. 119
8.2 Lexical specification and data categories	p. 120
8.2.1 Lexical specification	p. 120
8.2.2 Data categories	p. 121
8.3 Upper-layer ontology	p. 125
8.4 Evaluation platform	p. 126
8.5 Discussion	p. 128
8.6 Conclusion	p. 129
8.7 Acknowledgments	p. 130
8.8 Bibliography	p. 131
Chapter 9 DUELME: Dutch Electronic Lexicon of Multiword Expressions	p. 133
9.1 Introduction	p. 133
9.2 DUELME	p. 134
9.3 LMF	p. 135
9.4 The DUELME class model	p. 135
9.5 Comparison with the LMF Core Package	p. 137
9.6 Comparison with the LMF NLP multiword expression patterns extension	p. 139
9.7 Conclusions	p. 142
9.8 Acknowledgments	p. 143
9.9 Bibliography	p. 143
Chapter 10 UBY-LMF - Exploring the Boundaries of Language-Independent Lexicon Models	p. 145
10.1 Introduction	p. 145
10.2 Architecture of UBY-LMF	p. 147
10.3 Language independence of UBY-LMF	p. 148
10.3.1 Language-specific lexical-syntactic information	p. 148
10.3.2 Translation information	p. 149
10.3.3 Language-independent lexical-semantic information	p. 150
10.3.4 Language-independent semantic information at the interface to syntax	p. 150
10.4 FrameNet in UBY-LMF	p. 151
10.5 Conclusion	p. 153
10.6 Acknowledgments	p. 154
10.7 Bibliography	p. 154
Chapter 11 Conversion of Lexicon-Grammar Tables to LMF: Application to French	p. 157
11.1 Motivation	p. 157
11.2 The Lexicon-Grammar	p. 157
11.2.1 Lexicon-Grammar tables	p. 157
11.2.2 The LGLex dictionary	p. 159
11.2.3 The LGLex-Lefff dictionary	p. 160
11.3 Lexical entries	p. 160
11.4 Subcategorization frames	p. 163
11.4.1 Subcategorization frame sets	p. 163
11.4.2 Grammatical functions	p. 164
11.4.3 Representation of syntactic arguments	p. 165
11.4.4 Levels of generality of syntactic constructions	p. 168
11.4.5 Constituents	p. 169
11.5 Results	p. 170
11.6 Conclusion	p. 171
11.7 Bibliography	p. 172
Chapter 12 Collaborative Tools: From Wiktionary to LMF, for Synchronic and Diachronic Language Data	p. 175
12.1 Introduction	p. 175
12.2 Wiktionary	p. 175
12.3 Related work	p. 177
12.4 Additional challenges: how to encode the diversity of Wiktionary lexicon in LMF?	p. 179
12.4.1 Diachronic language data in Wiktionary	p. 179
12.4.2 A possible solution for interlinking dictionaries converted into LMF	p. 181
12.5 Conclusion	p. 183
12.6 Bibliography	p. 184
Chapter 13 LMF Experiments on Format Conversions for Resource Merging: Converters and Problems	p. 187
13.1 Introduction	p. 187
13.2 Automatic merging of resources	p. 188
13.3 Moving from PAROLE Genelex to LMF	p. 191
13.3.1 Lexical entry	p. 192
13.3.2 Subcategorization	p. 193
13.3.3 Properties (attributes vs. complex data categories)	p. 194
13.4 Conclusion	p. 197
13.5 Availability of resources	p. 198
13.6 Bibliography	p. 198
Chapter 14 LMF as a Foundation for Servicized Lexical Resources	p. 201
14.1 Introduction	p. 201
14.2 Lexical resources as lexical Web services	p. 201
14.3 LMF-aware Web services in the RESTful style	p. 202
14.4 Implementation showcases	p. 203
14.4.1 Servicizing WordNet-type computational semantic lexicons	p. 204
14.4.2 Bilingual machine-readable dictionaries	p. 207
14.4.3 Status of the developed services	p. 211
14.5 Summary	p. 212
14.6 Bibliography	p. 212
Chapter 15 Creating a Serialization of LMF: The Experience of the RELISH Project	p. 215
15.1 introduction	p. 215
15.2 Overview of the RELISH interchange format	p. 216
15.3 Mapping of equivalent elements	p. 217
15.3.1 Entry and headword	p. 218
15.3.2 Sense and its contained elements	p. 218
15.4 Complex mappings	p. 219
15.4.1 Relations	p. 219
15.4.2 Notes and feature structures	p. 219
15.4.3 Grammatical information	p. 221
15.4.4 Examples and extending LMF	p. 222
15.5 Harmonization of linguistic concepts	p. 223
15.6 Conclusions and future work	p. 224
15.7 Bibliography	p. 225
Chapter 16 Global Atlas: Proper Nouns, From Wikipedia to LMF	p. 227
16.1 Motivation	p. 227
16.2 Preparing recognition	p. 227
16.3 Context of usage	p. 230
16.4 Ontology of types	p. 231
16.5 Main source: Wikipedia	p. 232
16.6 Extraction	p. 233
16.7 Auxiliary machine learning	p. 234
16.8 LMF structures	p. 234
16.9 Example	p. 235
16.10 Results	p. 237
16.11 Current limitations and planned improvements	p. 237
16.12 LMF limitations	p. 238
16.13 Related work	p. 238
16.14 Conclusion	p. 239
16.15 Bibliography	p. 239
Chapter 17 LMF in U.S. Government Language Resource Management	p. 243
17.1 Introduction	p. 243
17.2 Wordscape overview	p. 244
17.3 The goal	p. 245
17.4 The importance of data standards	p. 245
17.5 Language base exchange	p. 246
17.6 Managing multilingual representations	p. 249
17.7 Managing grammatical information	p. 251
17.8 Grammatical information, an MRD example	p. 255
17.9 Managing LBX schema and document instances	p. 258
17.10 Data exchange using LBX	p. 259
17.11 Summary	p. 260
List of Authors	p. 263
Index	p. 267

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