Micropropulsion for small spacecraft

Micropropulsion is an enabling technology for microspacecraft operations by making missions possible which otherwise could not be performed. For example, the formation and maintenance of platoons of microspacecraft will require a manoeuvering capability to counter orbital perturbations. Microspacecraft missions involving large spacecraft resupply, repair or surveillance will also require manoeuverability. The mission requirements for microspacecraft will be varied and in some cases a large range of capability might be required on the same spacecraft. Micropropulsion systems must be extremely versatile to address these requirements. It is clear that there is a need for micropropulsion systems from high thrust chemical engines to high specific impulse electric thrusters to fulfill specific missions just as for larger spacecraft. It is becoming increasingly evident that microspacecraft will require efficient propulsion systems to enable many of the missions currently being investigated. The systems constraints on mass, power, maximum voltage and volume with which microspacecraft will have to contend pose several challenges to the propulsion system designer.Micropropulsion concepts that address these limitations in unique and beneficial ways, should be of interest to the microscpacecraft community. Written by leading experts in the field, this new book shows the state-of-the-art in micropropulsion concepts and activities at the early stages in the development of this new and exciting research area.

John H. Schilling and Ronald A. Spores and Gregory G. SpanjersJoyce Wong and Helen ReedJuergen MuellerAndrew D. KetsdeverAndrew D. Ketsdever and Dean C. Wadsworth and E. P. MuntzHideyuki Horisawa and Itsuro KimuraF. J. Souliez and S. G. Chianese and G. H. Dizac and M. M. MicciJuergen Mueller and Indrani Chakraborty and David Bame and William TangV. Khayms and M. Martinez-SanchezJeff Monheiser and Vlad Hruby and Charles Freeman and William Connolly and Bruce PoteColleen M. Marrese and James E. Polk and Kevin L. Jensen and Alec D. Gallimore and Capp A. Spindt and Richard L. Fink and W. Devereux PalmerJuergen Mueller and David Pyle and Indrani Chakraborty and Ronald Ruiz and William Tang and Colleen Marrese and Russell LawtonRodney L. Burton and Filip Rysanek and Erik A. Antonsen and Michael J. Wilson and Stewart S. BushmanPeter J. Turchi and Ioannis G. Mikellides and Pavlos G. Mikellides and Hani KamhawiN. Antropov and G. Diakonov and O. Lapayev and G. PopovRobert L. Bayt and Kenneth S. BreuerJuergen Mueller and Stephen Vargo and David Bame and Indrani Chakraborty and William TangColleen M. Marrese and Joseph J. Wang and Alec D. Gallimore and Keith D. GoodfellowJuergen Mueller

Preface	p. xvii
I. Surveys
Chapter 1 Micropropulsion Options for the TechSat21 Space-Based Radar Flight	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
TechSat21 Design	p. 5
Micropropulsion Options	p. 8
Chemical Micropropulsion	p. 10
Electromagnetic Micropropulsion	p. 11
Electrostatic Micropropulsion	p. 12
Electrodynamic Tether	p. 13
Electric Power Processing	p. 14
Analysis	p. 15
Conclusions	p. 20
References	p. 22
Chapter 2 University Micro-/Nanosatellite as a Micropropulsion Testbed	p. 25
Introduction	p. 25
University Satellites as Technology Testbed	p. 27
Three Corner Sat	p. 28
Mission Description	p. 28
Spacecraft Description	p. 29
Operational Modes	p. 31
Mission Requirements	p. 32
Drag Estimates	p. 33
Estimated [Delta]v Required	p. 38
Potential Micropropulsion Systems for 3CS	p. 39
System Requirements for the Free Molecule Micro-Resistojet	p. 39
System Requirements for the Cold Gas Micronozzle	p. 41
Conclusions	p. 42
References	p. 43
Chapter 3 Thruster Options for Microspacecraft: A Review and Evaluation of State-of-the-Art and Emerging Technologies	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Recent Microspacecraft Developments	p. 46
Background and Motivation	p. 46
Recent Microspacecraft Design Trends	p. 47
Preliminary Set of Micropropulsion Requirements for Microspacecraft	p. 51
System Integration Requirements	p. 53
Minimum Impulse Bit and Thrust Requirements	p. 54
Review of Chemical Propulsion Technologies	p. 56
Bipropellant Engines	p. 56
Monopropellant Thrusters: Hydrazine	p. 61
Monopropellant Thrusters: HAN-Based	p. 64
Monopropellant Thrusters: Hydrogen Peroxide	p. 66
Cold Gas Thrusters	p. 68
Tripropellant and Other Warm Gas Thrusters	p. 71
Solid Rocket Motors	p. 72
Hybrid Rocket Motors	p. 75
Review of Electric Propulsion Technologies	p. 77
Ion Engines	p. 77
Hall Thrusters	p. 81
FEEP	p. 84
Colloid Thrusters	p. 94
Pulsed Plasma Thrusters (PPTs)	p. 98
Resistojets	p. 105
Emerging Technologies: MEMS and MEMS-Hybrid Propulsion Concepts	p. 107
Case for MEMS Propulsion and Its Challenges	p. 107
Brief History of MEMS Propulsion	p. 110
MEMS-Based FEEP and Colloid Thruster Concepts	p. 111
Micro-Ion Engine Concepts	p. 112
MEMS-Based Microresistojet Concepts	p. 114
MEMS-Based Subliming Solid Microthruster Concept	p. 115
MEMS-Based Cold Gas Thruster Concept	p. 117
MEMS-Based Bipropellant Thruster Concept	p. 117
Digital Microthruster Array Concepts	p. 118
Evaluation of Existing Propulsion Technologies and Identification of Future Technology Needs	p. 120
Evaluation of Existing Propulsion Technologies	p. 120
Identification of Technology Needs	p. 123
Conclusions	p. 125
References	p. 126
Chapter 4 System Considerations and Design Options for Microspacecraft Propulsion Systems	p. 139
Nomenclature	p. 139
Introduction	p. 140
Microspacecraft	p. 140
Micropropulsion	p. 141
Micropropulsion Scaling Issues	p. 142
Micronozzle Expansions	p. 142
Ion Formation at Small-Scale Lengths	p. 147
Micron-Scale Combustion and Mixing	p. 149
Micro-Heat Transfer	p. 151
MEMS Device Considerations	p. 155
Micropropulsion System Considerations	p. 157
Micronozzle System Considerations	p. 157
Micro-Ion Thruster System Considerations	p. 158
Microchemical Thruster System Considerations	p. 160
Conclusions	p. 160
References	p. 161
II. Electrothermal Thrusters
Chapter 5 Predicted Performance and Systems Analysis of the Free Molecule Micro-Resistojet	p. 167
Nomenclature	p. 167
Introduction	p. 168
Theory	p. 170
Specific Impulse from Free Molecule Flow	p. 170
Specific Impulse from Limit Equilibrium and Orifice Expansion	p. 170
Calculations	p. 171
Results	p. 172
Discussion	p. 176
FMMR Estimated Thruster Performance	p. 176
FMMR Scaling	p. 176
Power Usage and Heat Transfer Considerations	p. 177
Systems Analysis	p. 177
Mass of Stored Propellant	p. 178
MEMS Valve Leakage	p. 178
Propellant Storage Tank Mass	p. 178
Effective Specific Impulse	p. 179
Effective Specific Impulse Comparisons of the FMMR with a Cold Gas Thruster	p. 180
Propellant Storage Volume Considerations	p. 181
Conclusions	p. 182
References	p. 182
Chapter 6 Study of Very Low-Power Arcjets	p. 185
Nomenclature	p. 185
Introduction	p. 185
Experiment	p. 187
Arcjet Thruster	p. 187
Propulsive Performance Tests	p. 188
Thermal Efficiency and Gas Temperature Diagnostics	p. 188
Results and Discussion	p. 189
Propulsive Performance of Very Low-Power Arcjet Thrusters	p. 189
Diagnostics of Gas Temperature and Thermal Efficiency of Very Low-Power Arcjets	p. 193
Conclusions	p. 195
References	p. 196
Chapter 7 Low-Power Microwave Arcjet Testing: Plasma and Plume Diagnostics and Performance Evaluation	p. 199
Nomenclature	p. 199
Introduction	p. 199
Experiment	p. 201
Propellant Testing	p. 202
Electron Temperature Experiment	p. 206
Doppler Shift Experiment	p. 209
Thrust Measurement	p. 211
Conclusions	p. 213
References	p. 213
Chapter 8 Vaporizing Liquid Microthruster Concept: Preliminary Results of Initial Feasibility Studies	p. 215
Introduction	p. 215
Chip Design and Fabrication	p. 216
Heater Characterization	p. 219
Description of Experiment	p. 219
Results	p. 220
Propellant Vaporization: Initial Studies	p. 222
Description of Experiment	p. 222
Preliminary Results	p. 225
Preliminary Conclusions and Future Work	p. 228
References	p. 230
III. Electrostatic Thrusters
Chapter 9 Fifty-Watt Hall Thruster for Microsatellites	p. 233
Introduction	p. 233
Hall Thruster Operation	p. 233
Scaling Model	p. 234
Thruster Design	p. 237
General Considerations	p. 237
Magnetic Circuit Design	p. 238
Thermal Design/Material Selection	p. 240
Cathode Design	p. 241
Final Design	p. 242
Testing Facility	p. 242
Vacuum Tank	p. 243
Thrust Balance, Calibration, and Data Aquisition	p. 243
Cathode	p. 244
Flow System	p. 244
Experimental Results	p. 244
Alternative Scaling Scenarios: Universal Scaling	p. 247
Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 252
References	p. 254
Chapter 10 Development and Testing of a Low-Power Hall Thruster System	p. 255
Introduction	p. 255
Thruster System Description	p. 256
200-W Hall Thruster	p. 256
1500-mA, Low-Power Hollow Cathode	p. 260
400-W Power Processing Unit	p. 262
Thruster Performance	p. 264
Facilities and Experimental Apparatus	p. 264
Constant-Discharge Voltage Performance Data	p. 266
Thruster Comparison to Current Sate of the Art	p. 268
Summary	p. 269
References	p. 269
Chapter 11 Performance of Field Emission Cathodes in Xenon Electric Propulsion System Environments	p. 271
Nomenclature	p. 271
Introduction	p. 273
FEA Cathode Performance Modeling	p. 277
Field Electron Emission Model	p. 278
Tip Sputtering Model	p. 280
Sputter Yield Model	p. 283
Cathode Experimental Performance Evaluations	p. 284
Experimental Apparatus	p. 286
Silicon FEA Cathodes	p. 286
Molybdenum FEA Cathodes	p. 289
Carbon-Film Cathodes	p. 293
Discussion	p. 295
Conclusions	p. 298
References	p. 299
Chapter 12 Electric Breakdown Characteristics of Silicon Dioxide Films for Use in Microfabricated Ion Engine Accelerator Grids	p. 303
Introduction	p. 303
Microfabricated Grid Design Issues	p. 305
Previous Related Research	p. 306
Description of the Experiment	p. 309
Substrate Breakdown Tests	p. 312
Oxide Thickness Dependence	p. 312
Temperature Dependence	p. 314
Visual Post-Test Inspection of Test Samples	p. 316
Surface Breakdown Tests	p. 323
Dependence on Gap Distance	p. 323
Paschen Breakdown Considerations	p. 327
Influence of Surface Morphology	p. 328
Visual Post-Test Inspection of Test Samples	p. 331
Conclusions	p. 332
References	p. 334
IV. Electromagnetic Thrusters
Chapter 13 Pulsed Plasma Thruster Performance for Microspacecraft Propulsion	p. 337
Nomenclature	p. 337
Introduction	p. 338
PPT Performance for Micropropulsion	p. 339
Electromagnetic Impulse Bit	p. 340
Gasdynamic Impulse Bit	p. 341
Defining Thruster Efficiency	p. 341
Efficiency Definitions	p. 342
Two-Stream Model	p. 346
Discussion	p. 349
References	p. 352
Chapter 14 Pulsed Plasma Thrusters for Microsatellite Propulsion: Techniques for Optimization	p. 353
Nomenclature	p. 353
Introduction	p. 354
Numerical Modeling	p. 355
Idealized Model	p. 356
Confirmation of the Idealized Model	p. 358
Optimized Current Waveforms	p. 361
Simulations in Coaxial Geometry	p. 363
Optimizing the Specific Impulse	p. 365
Conclusions	p. 366
Appendix Plasma Speed at the Magnetosonic Point in the Limit of a Low [beta] and a High Magnetic Reynolds Number	p. 366
References	p. 368
Chapter 15 Laboratory Investigation of Pulsed Plasma Thrusters with Gas Valves	p. 369
Introduction	p. 369
Electromagnetic Pulsed Gas Valves	p. 369
Gas Propellant PPTs	p. 372
Conclusions	p. 376
References	p. 377
V. Components
Chapter 16 Fabrication and Testing of Micron-Sized Cold-Gas Thrusters	p. 381
Nomenclature	p. 381
Introduction	p. 382
Fabrication	p. 383
Numerical Simulation	p. 386
Experimental Testing	p. 386
Results and Discussion	p. 387
Inlet Flow	p. 387
Flowfield Analysis and Boundary Layer Calculation	p. 388
Experimental Results	p. 391
Endwall Boundary Layer and Plume Effects	p. 393
Conclusions	p. 396
References	p. 397
Chapter 17 Micro-Isolation Valve Concept: Initial Results of a Feasibility Study	p. 399
Introduction	p. 399
Description of the Concept	p. 401
Concept	p. 401
Key Feasibility Issues	p. 402
Burst Pressure Tests	p. 403
Test Chip Design	p. 403
Burst Test Setup and Procedure	p. 407
Results	p. 408
Plug Melting Tests	p. 413
Test Chip Design	p. 413
Test Setup and Procedure	p. 413
Conclusions and Future Work	p. 420
References	p. 422
Chapter 18 Space-Charge--Limited Emission from Field Emission Cathodes for Electric Propulsion and Tether Applications	p. 423
Nomenclature	p. 423
Introduction	p. 424
One-Dimensional Cathode Sheath Model	p. 429
Three-Dimensional Particle Simulation Model	p. 434
Discussion	p. 440
Conclusions	p. 441
Appendix A One-Dimensional Planar Sheath Model	p. 442
Appendix B One-Dimensional Spherical Sheath Model	p. 445
References	p. 446
Chapter 19 Review and Applicability Assessment of MEMS-Based Microvalve Technologies for Microspacecraft Propulsion	p. 449
Introduction	p. 449
Microspacecraft Valve Requirements	p. 452
Size and Weight	p. 452
Power Consumption	p. 452
Voltage	p. 452
Minimum Valve Cycle Time	p. 453
Pressure Requirements	p. 453
Leakage	p. 453
Liquid Propellant Compatibility	p. 454
Valve Seating Forces	p. 454
Filtration	p. 455
MEMS Microvalve Survey	p. 455
Thermopneumatic Valves	p. 455
Bimorph Valves	p. 457
Shape-Memory Alloy Valves	p. 459
Electrostatic Valves	p. 461
Piezoelectric Valves	p. 464
Electromagnetic Valves	p. 465
Check Valves	p. 467
Isolation Valves	p. 468
Pneumatic Valves	p. 470
Evaluation of State-of-the-Art MEMS Valves and Future Technology Needs	p. 470
Evaluation of State-of-the-Art Technology	p. 470
Future Technology Needs	p. 472
Conclusions	p. 473
References	p. 474
Author Index	p. 477

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